Block Versus Convolutional Codes

Block codes take k input bits and produce n output bits, where k and n
are large
there is no data dependency between blocks
useful for data communications

Convolutional codes take a small number of input bits and produce a

small number of output bits each time period
data passes through convolutional codes in a continuous stream
useful for low- latency communications
 Convolutional Codes
 k bits are input, n bits are output
 Now k & n are very small (usually k=1-3, n=2-6)
 Input depends not only on current set of k input bits, but also on past
input.
 The number of bits which input depends on is called the "constraint length" K.
It is also the memory of the convolutional code
Example of Convolutional Code
k=1, n=2, K=3 convolutional code
Example of Convolutional Code
k=2, n=3, K=2 convolutional code
 Representations of Convolutional Codes

 Encoder Block Diagram (shown above)

 Generator Representation
 Trellis Representation
 State Diagram Representation
 Convolutional Code Generators
 One generator vector for each of the n output bits:
 The length of the generator vector for a rate =k/n
code with constraint length K is K.k bits
The bits in the generator from left to right represent the
connections in the encoder circuit. A “1” represents a link from
the shift register. A “0” represents no link.
 Encoder vectors are often given in octal representation
Example of Convolutional Code
k=1, n=2, K=3 convolutional code
Example of Convolutional Code
k=2, n=3, K=2 convolutional code
 State Diagram Representation

 Contents of shift registers make up "state" of code:

 Most recent input is most significant bit of state.
 Oldest input is least significant bit of state.
 (this convention is sometimes reverse)

 Arcs connecting states represent allowable transitions

Arcs are labeled with Input/output bits transmitted during transition
Example of State Diagram Representation
Of Convolutional Codes
k=1, n=2, K=3 convolutional code
 Trellis Representation of Convolutional Code
 State diagram is “unfolded” function of time
Time indicated by movement towards right
Contents of shift registers make up "state" of code:
Most recent input is most significant bit of state.
Oldest input is least significant bit of state.

 Allowable transitions are denoted by connects between

states
transitions may be labeled with transmitted bits
Encoding Example Using Trellis Representation
k=1, n=2, K=3 convolutional code

We begin in state 00:

Input Data: 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
Output: 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 10 10 1 1
 Search for good codes

We would like convolutional codes with large free distance

must avoid “catastrophic codes”
Generators for best convolutional codes are generally found via
computer search
 search is constrained to codes with regular structure
 search is simplified because any permutation of identical
generators is equivalent
search is simplified because of linearity.
Best Rate 1/2 Codes
Best Rate 1/3 Codes
Best Rate 2/3 Codes
 Summary of Convolutional Codes

Convolutional Codes are useful for real-time applications because

they can be continuously encoded and decoded

We can represent convolutional codes as generators, block

diagrams, state diagrams, and trellis diagrams

We want to design convolutional codes to maximize free distance

while maintaining non-catastrophic performance
 Modification to Known Codes
 Many known codes can be modified by an extra code symbol or by
deleting a symbol, thus
* Can create codes of almost any desired rate
* Can create codes with slightly improved performance

 The resulting code can usually be decoded with only a slight

modification to the decoder algorithm.

 Sometimes modification process can be applied multiple times in

succession
 Modification to Known Codes
1. Puncturing: delete a parity symbol
 (n,k) code  (n-1,k) code

2. Shortening: delete a message symbol

 (n,k) code  (n-1,k-1) code

3. Expurgating: delete some subset of codewords

 (n,k) code  (n,k-1) code

4. Extending: add an additional parity symbol

 (n,k) code  (n+1,k) code
 Modification to Known Codes…
5. Lengthening: add an additional message symbol
 (n,k) code  (n+1,k+1) code

6. Augmenting: add a subset of additional code words

 (n,k) code  (n,k+1) code
 Interleaving
 We have assumed so far that bit errors are independent from one
bit to the next
 In mobile radio, fading makes bursts of error likely.
 Interleaving is used to try to make these errors independent again
Length

1 6 11 16 21 26 31
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Depth Order
 Bits
Of
Transmitted
Interleaving

5 10 30 35
29 30 34 35
Order
Bits
Received
 Concatenated Codes
 Two levels of coding
Achieves performance of very long code rates while maintaining
shorter decoding complexity

 Overall rate is product of individual code rates

Codeword error occurs if both codes fail.

Error probability is found by first evaluating the error probability of

“inner” decoder and then evaluating the error probability of “outer”
decoder.

 Interleaving is always used with concatenated coding

 Block Diagram of Concatenated Coding Systems

Data
Bits
Outer Inner
Interleave Modulator
Encoder Encoder

Channel

Data
Out
Outer Inner
De- De-Modulator
Decoder Interleave Decoder
 Practical Application : Coding for CD
•Each channel is sampled at 44000 samples/second

•Each sample is quantized with 16 bits

Uses a concatenated RS code

 Both codes constructed over GF(256) (8-bits/symbol)
 Outer code is a (28,24) shortened RS code
 Inner code is a (32,28) extended RS code
In between coders is a (28,4) cross-interleaver
 Overall code rate is r = 0.75

Most commercial CD players don’t exploit full power of the error

correction coder
 Practical Application: Galileo Deep Space Probe
 Uses concatenated coding
 Inner code rate is ½, constraint length 7 convolutinal encoder

Outer Code (255,223) RS code over GF(256) – corrects any burst errors
from convolutional codes

 Overall Code Rate is r= 0.437

 A block interleaver held 2RS Code words

 Deep space channel is severely energy limited but not bandwidth limited
 IS-95 CDMA
The IS-95 standard employs the rate (64,6) orthogonal (Walsh)
code on the reverse link
The inner Walsh Code is concatenated with a rate 1/3, constraint
length 9 convolutional code

Data Transmission in a 3rd Generation PCS

Proposed ETSI standard employs RS Codes concatenated with
convolutional codes for data communication
Requirements;
Ber of the order of 10-6
Moderate Latency is acceptable
CDMA2000 uses turbo codes for data transmission
ETSI has optional provisions for Turbo Coding
 A Common Theme from Coding Theory

 The real issue is the complexity of the decoder.

For a binary code, we must match 2n possible received
sequences with code words
 Only a few practical decoding algorithms have been found:
 Berlekamp-Massey algorithm for Block codes
 Viterbi algorithm (and similar technique) for
convolutional codes
Code designers have focused on finding new codes that work
with known algorithms