INTRODUCTION

There is no relative motion of layers within fluid, therefore no shear stress.

The only stress applied on fluid is normal stress, PRESSURE, that acts perpendicular to the fluid surface.
In fluid statics, three conditions occur:
i. Fluid in rest
ii. Fluid in container that undergoes linear acceleration
iii. Fluid in container that undergoes angular rotation
INTENSITY OF PRESSURE
When a fluid is contained in a vessel, it exerts force at all points on the sides and bottom of the container. The force
per unit area is called as pressure. In Fluid Mechanics, this pressure is also called as INTENSITY OF PRESSURE.
Mathematically, Pressure (P)
SI Unit: N/ m2 or Pascal (Pa)
Barye (dyne/ cm2) ; 1 bar = 10 barye
The pressure of fluid always act normal to the surface.
This law was coined by Blaise Pascal in 1653, known as Pascal’s law.
PASCAL’S LAW
• An external pressure applied to an incompressible enclosed fluid is transmitted
uniformly throughout the volume of the fluid and act perpendicular to the
enclosing walls. OR
• The intensity of pressure at any point in a fluid, at rest, is same in all directions.
 PROOF OF PASCAL’S LAW
Consider an arbitrary wedge shaped fluid element as shown in the figure.
As shown in the figure, P1, P2 and P3 are the pressure intensities at faces AB, BC and AC
respectively. The angle of the wedge at vortex C is θ as shown. Let ‘t’ be the thickness of the
wedge.
Then,
Forces acting on the wedge element are
•Pressure force normal toe the surfaces
•Weight of the element in vertical direction

Considering the element to be in equilibrium,

ΣFx = 0
P1 X AB X t – P3sinθ X AC X t =0
P1 X AC sin θ X t – P3sinθ X AC X t =0 Considering geometry of the wedge
(P1 -P3) X AC sin θ X t =0
Since AC cannot be zero,
P1-P3 =0
Which implies, P1 = P3 (i)

Again, ΣFz = 0
P2 X BC X t – P3cosθ X AC X t – γ X V =0 Weight of the element = γ XV
P2 X BC X t – P3cosθ X AC X t – γ X 12 X AB X BC X t =0
Considering the element of the fluid, volume can be neglected.
Therefore, P2 X BC X t – P3cosθ X AC X t =0
P2 X AC Cosθ X t – P3cosθ X AC X t =0
(P2 – P3) X AC Cosθ X t =0
Again, P2 =P3 (ii)
Hence, P1 = P2 = P3, proved
HYDROSTATIC LAW OF PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
•At any point inside a static fluid, the vertical rate of increase of pressure must equal the local specific weight of
the fluid.
•The intensity of pressure is the function of depth only in static and incompressible fluid.
•For any 3-dimensional element, pressure intensity at any point can be given mathematically as:

•In x-direction
ΣFx = 0
i.e. - =0
HYDROSTATIC LAW OF PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
•Similarly, for y-direction,
ΣFy = 0
- =0

•The dimensions of the element cannot be zero, regardless of however small they are, therefore,

•Similarly, for z-direction, the forces acting on the element are surface force and gravity force.
ΣFz = 0
i.e. - – Weight = 0

, which implies,
•The pressure intensity at any depth can be obtained by integrating this along the depth.
HYDROSTATIC LAW OF PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

, and the depth z2 -z1 = h

Therefore, P = γ.h

Which proves that intensity of pressure in a fluid is dependent of depth only.

PRESSURE-ABSOLUTE AND GAUGE
 Absolute pressure: pressure measured with reference to absolute zero pressure
• Used to measure pressure at space, caves, deep ocean, great heights etc.
 Gauge pressure: pressure measured with reference to atmospheric pressure
• All practical devices that measure pressure at Earth surface
 Atmospheric pressure: pressure at sea level at 20°C; equals to 1 bar OR 101325 Pa OR 10.34 m H2O
 Vacuum pressure: pressure below atmospheric pressure is called vacuum pressure;
• Pressure at great heights, experimental set-up, pipelines etc.
•e.g. Pressure of 50 kPa can be expressed as (101 kPa – 50 kPa) = 51 kPa vacuum pressure
PRESSURE HEAD AT A POINT
•Pressure head is the height of the liquid
column that corresponds to the pressure
exerted by the liquid at the base of the
column.
•It is expressed in height of liquid. E.g. 10 m of
water head OR 76 mm of mercury
•Measured in m, cm, mm, inches

Instead of 150 kPa pressure, we can simply say

150,000/(1000 X 10) = 15 m of water OR
150,000 / (13500 x 10) = 1.11 m of mercury
150,000 / (900 X 10) = 16.67 m of oil
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
Pressure
Measurement

Manometer Mechanical Electronic

Simple Differential Bourden tube Sensors

Diaphragm
Piezometer Strain Gauging
pressure gauge

Bellows
Single Column Pieezoresistive
pressure gauge

U-tube Dead Weight

Inclined

MIcro-
manometer
 MANOMETERS
•Manometers are tubes partly filled with fluid, and based on fluid balancing principle to measure the pressure
at any point.
•Generally, manometer refers to U-shaped columns that are filled with fluid to certain level.
•SIMPLE MANOMETERS
A simple manometer consists of a tube with open end, the other attached to a point where pressure is to
be measured.
•PIEZOMETER
It is the simplest form of manometer. One end of the tube is connected to point where pressure is to be
measured and the other end is open (exposed to atmospheric pressure). The height rise/ fall in the column is
measured and the pressure is computed simply by using the relation:
Pressure (P) = ρgh N/m2
MANOMETERS
U-TUBE MANOMETER
•It is a tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is connected to the point where pressure is to be measured and
the other end is open, exposed to atmospheric pressure. The fluid in the column is generally taken as mercury
or similar liquids with significantly high specific gravity. This reduces the height of measurement to practical
levels.
U-TUBE MANOMETER
SINGLE COLUMN MANOMETER
• modified version of U-tube manometer, one end of which is connected to the point where pressure is to be
measured and the other end is open, exposed to atmospheric pressure.
• The limb connected to the point has a large cross-sectional reservoir as compared to the area of tube. For
any variation of pressure in the point, the level of reservoir changes insignificantly, therefore reading on the
other limb will only suffice to compute the pressure of the point.
SINGLE COLUMN MANOMETER
It is a modified version of U-tube manometer, one end of which is connected to the point where pressure is to be
measured and the other end is open, exposed to atmospheric pressure. The limb connected to the point has a large
cross-sectional reservoir as compared to the area of tube. For any variation of pressure in the point, the level of
reservoir changes insignificantly, therefore reading on the other limb will only suffice to compute the pressure of the
point.
There are two types of single column manometer due to construction:
a. Vertical single column manometer and
b. Inclined single column manometer
fluid in the column is generally taken as mercury or similar liquids with significantly high specific gravity. This reduces the height of measurement to practical levels.
In the above figure, let the initial level of pressure be represented by level X-X (before manometer is connected to the point). Let Y-Y represent the new level of
the fluid after the connection of manometer in the pressure point. The area of reservoir in the left limb be represented by ‘A’, the change in level by Δh and the
change in level in right limb by ‘h2’. Then, by principle, change in pressure in both limbs should be equal. Mathematically,

Pressure at new point, Y-Y on both limbs can be represented as:

Pressure in left limb =
Pressure in left limb =
Equating these relations,

Since a/ A is very insignificant compared to other expressions, we can neglect the value. And the new relation becomes:
In the above figure, let the initial level of pressure be represented by level X-X (before manometer is connected to the point). Let Y-Y represent the new
level of the fluid after the connection of manometer in the pressure point. The area of reservoir in the left limb be represented by ‘A’, the change in level by
Δh and the change in level in right limb by ‘h2’. Then, by principle, change in pressure in both limbs should be equal. Mathematically,

Pressure at new point, Y-Y on both limbs can be represented as:

Pressure in left limb =
Pressure in left limb =
Equating these relations,

Since a/ A is very insignificant compared to other expressions, we can neglect the value. And the new relation becomes:
 DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
Generally, we require pressure difference measurement between two points. For such purposes, differential manometers
are handy.
It consists of an inverted tube, containing fluid of relatively lighter density. It is used to measure relatively low pressure
and / or vacuum pressure.

Taking X-X as datum line,

Pressure at left limb below X-X =
Pressure at right limb below X-X =
Equating these relations,