تدريب غلايات

By Dr Amin Al-Ghonemy
Scales, Pitting corrosion and failures
WATER TREATMENT
Safety First
An oxygen corrosion pitting damage on a Sunrod pin tube and internal tube.
THE CIRCULATION OF WATER IN STEAM BOILERS
Fig.(1): Boiling of water in a kettle
Fig.(2): separate the upward from the downward currents
THE CIRCULATION OF WATER IN STEAM BOILERS
)‫الدوران الطبيعى للمياه فى الغاليات (السريان الصاعد والهابط‬
Fig.(4): Boiling of water in a U-tube Fig.(5) Fig.(6)
Fire tube boilers(steam is generated outside the tubes)
Economic boiler (two-pass, dry back)
Economic boiler (three-pass, wet back
Water tube boilers : in which steam is generated inside tubes
Boiler Ratings
Three types of boiler ratings are commonly used:

'From and at' rating.
kW rating.
Boiler horsepower (BoHP).
'From and at' rating:
shows the amount of steam in kg/h which the boiler can create
‘from and at 100°C’,at atmospheric pressure.
Example 3.5.1
A boiler has a ‘from and at’ rating of 2 000 kg/h and operates at 15 bar g. The feedwater temperature is 68°C.
kW rating
Example 3.5.2
A boiler is rated at 3 000 kW (kJ/s) and operates at 10 bar g with a feedwater temperature of 50°C. How much steam can be generated?
Where, from using the tables on the Spirax Sarco website:
In the USA and Australia
a boiler horsepower is the amount of energy required

to evaporate 34.5 lb of water at 212°F atmospheric conditions
Example 3.5.3
A boiler is rated at 500 BoHP, what is its steam output?
the same as a ‘from and at’ rating, so using

feedwater at lower temperatures and steam at higher
pressures will reduce the amount of steam generated
In practice: A BoHP figure of 28 to 30 lb / h would be
a more realistic maximum continuous rating, taking into
account the steam pressure and average feedwater temperatures
A more practical result would then be:
Consequently: If 17 250 lb/h of steam is required,

a 500 BoHP boiler would be too small, and the
user would need to specify a boiler with a rating of:
Boiler Efficiency and Combustion
Heat exported in steam

This is calculated (using the steam tables) from knowledge of:

• The feedwater temperature.
• The pressure at which steam is exported.
• The steam flow rate.
Heat provided by the fuel Calorific value

This value may be expressed in two ways ‘Gross’ or ‘Net’ calorific
value.
Net calorific value
Technology
Modern boilers with the latest burners may have:

• Re-circulated flue gases to ensure optimum combustion, with minimum
excess air.
• Sophisticated electronic control systems that monitor all the components
of the flue gas, and make adjustments to fuel and air flows
to maintain conditions within specified parameters.
• Greatly improved turndown ratios (the ratio between maximum
and minimum firing rates)
which enable efficiency and emission parameters to be satisfied
over a greater range of operation.
Heat losses
Heat losses in the flue gases
Radiation losses
Burners and controls
Burner turndown
This is usually expressed as a ratio and is based on the maximum
firing rate divided by the minimum controllable firing rate
Oil burners: Pressure jet burners; Rotary cup burner
Gas burners Dual fuel burners
Burner control systems
On/off control system; Modulating control system
Full modulation, however, means that the boiler keeps firing
over the whole range to maximise thermal efficiencyand minimise
thermal stresses. This type of control can be fitted to any size boiler,
but should always be fitted to boilers rated at over 10 000 kg/h.
Boiler name-plate:
Safety valves
Its function is to protect the boiler shell from over pressure
and subsequent explosion
they must all meet the following criteria:
• The total discharge capacity of the safety valve(s) must be at least equal
to the ‘from and at 100°C’
capacity of the boiler. If the ‘from and at’ evaporation is used to size the
safety valve, the safety valve capacity will always be higher than the actual
maximum evaporative boiler capacity.
• The full rated discharge capacity of the safety valve(s) must be achieved
within 110% of the boiler design pressure.
• The minimum inlet bore of a safety valve connected to a boiler shall be
20 mm.
• The maximum set pressure of the safety valve shall be the design (or
maximum permissible working pressure) of the boiler.
• There must be an adequate margin between the normal operating pressure
of the boiler and the set pressure of the safety valve.
Boiler stop valves
Feedwater check valves
Boiler water quality control : TDS control: continuous blowdown’
Bottom blowdown
This ejects the sludge or
sediment from the bottom
of the boiler
water level indicator Gauge glasses :
-protection for the

face and hands
-test the water gauges at

least once each day
To test a gauge glass, the following procedure should be followed:

1. Close the water cock and open the drain cock for approximately 5 seconds.
2. Close the drain cock and open the water cock
Water should return to its normal working level relatively quickly. If this does not happen, then
a blockage in the water cock could be the reason, and remedial action should be taken as soon as possible.
3. Close the steam cock and open the drain cock for approximately 5 seconds.
4. Close the drain cock and open the steam cock.
If the water does not return to its normal working level relatively quickly, a blockage may exist in the steam
cock. Remedial action should be taken as soon as possible.
Water level controls: External level control chambers
The following is a typical procedure that may be used to test the controls
when the boiler is under pressure, and the burner is firing:
• Slowly turn the handwheel clockwise until the indicating pointer is at the first ‘pause’ position. The float chamber
connection is baffled, the drain connection is opened, and the water connection is blown through.
• Pause for 5 to 8 seconds.
• Slowly move the handwheel further clockwise to full travel. The water connection is shut-off, the drain valve remains
open,
and the float chamber and steam connections are blown through. The boiler controls should operate
as for lowered water level in boiler i.e. pump running and / or audible alarm sounding and burner cut-out. Alternatively if
the
level control chamber is fitted with a second or extra low water alarm, the boiler should lock-out.
• Pause for 5 to 8 seconds.
• Slowly turn the handwheel fully anticlockwise to shut-off against the back seating in the ‘normal working’ position.
Internally mounted level controls
Steam Headers
Water carryover
Changes in load that occur faster than the boiler can respond will adversely affect the dryness fraction.
Poor control of boiler water TDS, or contamination of boiler feedwater, will result in wet steam being
discharged from the boiler.
Water carryover , cont.
A number of problems are associated with this:

• Water droplets in steam pipes will tend to erode the inside
of the pipe, and any other
fittings,and valves, especially if velocities are high.
• Water in a steam system gives the potential for dangerous
water hammer.
• Water in steam does not contain the enthalpy of evaporation
that the plant has been designed to use, so transporting it to the
plant is inefficient.
• Water carried over with steam from a boiler will inevitably
contain dissolved and suspended solids, which can contaminate
controls, heat transfer surfaces, steam traps and the product.
Warm-up
It is essential that when a boiler is brought on line, it is done in a slow,
safe and controlled manner to avoid:
• Waterhammer - Where large quantities of condensate lie inside
the pipe and are then
pushed along the pipe at steam velocities. This can result in damage
when the water impacts with an obstruction in the pipe, for example
a control valve.
• Thermal shock - Where the pipework is being heated so rapidly
that the expansion is uncontrolled, setting up stresses in the pipework
and causing large movement on the pipe supports.
• Priming - Where a sudden reduction of steam pressure caused by
a large, suddenly applied load may result in boiler water being pulled
into the pipework.
Not only is this bad for plant operation, the boiler can often go to
‘lock-out’
and it will take some time to return the boiler to operating status.
Boiler related standards (UK)
Ensuring proper steam distribution
The header Operating pressure:

For example, a PN16 rating is 16 bar at 120°C, but is only suitable
for up to 13.8 bar saturated steam (198°C).
Diameter:
The header diameter should be calculated with a maximum steam velocity
of 15 m/s under full-load conditions. Low velocity is important as it helps
any entrained moisture to fall out.
Water Treatment, Storage and Blowdown for Steam Boilers
Hardness is caused by the presence of the mineral salts of
calcium and magnesium and it is these same minerals that
encourage the formation of scale.
There are two common classifications of hardness:

as temporary hardness) - Calcium and magnesium
Alkaline hardness (also known
bicarbonates are responsible for alkaline hardness.
Non-alkaline hardness and carbonates

(also known as permanent hardness) - This is also due to the presence of the salts of calcium and
magnesium but in the form of sulphates and chlorides.
Total hardness
Raw water quality
Alkaline hardness (also known as temporary hardness) –
Calcium and magnesium bicarbonates are responsible for alkaline hardness.
The salts dissolve in water to form an alkaline solution. When heat is applied,
they decompose to release carbon dioxide and soft scale or sludge.
Non-scale forming salts
pH value
pH value
External water treatment
External water treatment processes can be listed as:

• Reverse osmosis - A process where pure water is forced through a semi-permeable membrane
leaving a concentrated solution of impurities, which is rejected to waste.
• Lime; lime/soda softening - With lime softening, hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide)
reacts with calcium and magnesium bicarbonates to form a removable sludge. This reduces the alkaline
(temporary) hardness. Lime/soda (soda ash) softening reduces non-alkaline (permanent) hardness by
chemical reaction.
• Ion exchange - Is by far the most widely used method of water treatment for shell boilers
producing saturated steam. This module will concentrate on the following processes by which water is
treated: Base exchange, Dealkalisation and Demineralisation
Base exchange softening :

The resin bed is initially activated (charged) by passing a 7 - 12% solution of brine (sodium chloride or
common salt) through it, which leaves the resin rich in sodium ions.
Dealkalisation
Demineralisation
Selection of external water treatment plant
Cost savings associated with reducing the dissolved oxygen in feedwater by heating
Basis for calculation:
• The standard dosing rate for sodium sulphite is 8 ppm per 1 ppm of
dissolved oxygen.
• It is usual to add an additional 4 ppm to maintain a reserve
in the boiler.
• Typical liquid catalysed sodium sulphite contains only 45% sodium sulphite
Calculation 2
Annual cost saving
Condensate return
Condensate has a high heat content and approximately 1% less fuel is required
for every 6°C temperature rise in the feedtank.
Figure 3.11.5(a) shows the formation of steam at 10 bar g when the boiler is supplied with cold
feedwater at 10°C. The portion at the bottom of the diagram represents the enthalpy (42 kJ / kg)
available in the feedwater.
A further 740 kJ / kg of heat energy has to be added to the water in the boiler before saturation
temperature at 10 bar g is reached.
Figure 3.11.5(b) again shows the formation of steam at 10 bar g, but this time the boiler is fed
with feedwater heated to 70°C by returning more condensate
The increased enthalpy contained in the feedwater means that the boiler now only has to add
489 kJ/kg of heat energy to bring it up to saturation temperature at 10 bar g. This represents
a saving of 9.2% in the energy needed to raise steam at this same pressure.
The returned condensate is virtually pure water and this saves not only on water costs but also
on water treatment chemicals, which reduces the losses associated with blowdown.
Flash steam from heat recovery systems
for example, recover flash steam from the boiler blowdown. It is another
opportunity to use recovered heat to raise the feedtank temperature and so save fuel
Insulation
Deaerators
Sampling for external analysis
Calculating the blowdown rate
Flashing
On/off boiler blowdown valves
TDS is to be kept between reasonable values, and DN15 and 20 valves are the most common sizes to be found.
A typical arrangement would be to set the controller to open the valve at, for example, 3 000 ppm,
then to close the valve at 3 000 – 10% = 2 700 ppm. This would give a good balance between
a reasonable sized valve and accurate control.
Closed loop electronic

control systems
These systems measure the boiler water conductivity,
compare it with a set point, and open a blowdown
control valve if the TDS level is too high
Evaluating savings by reducing blowdown rate
Condition 1, manual TDS control: Blowdown rate = 11.1%
Example 3.12.5, if the boiler had been operating at 10 bar g, steaming at 5 000 kg/h and had a feedwater
temperature of 80°C (hf = 335 kJ/kg), the change in energy requirement could be calculated as follows:
Example 3.12.7
Example 3.12.7
Condition 2,
automatic TDS
control :
Heat Recovery from Boiler Blowdown (TDS control only
Example 3.13.1
To obtain the energy flow in kW:
Flash steam the boiler in Example 3.13.1 - 10 bar g, this temperature is 184°C.
Assuming the blowdown water is released to a flash steam system operating at 0.5 bar g, steam tables may
be used to quantify this energy excess:
Example 3.13.2
The specific enthalpy of evaporation at 0.5 bar g (hfg) from steam tables is 2 226 kJ/kg.
Therefore 14.1% of the water blown down from the boiler will change to steam as its pressure drops from
10 to 0.5 bar g across the blowdown valve.
There are two options
1. Vent this flash steam to atmosphere via the blowdown vessel with the associated waste of energy and
2. potentially good quality water from the condensed steam.
2. Utilise the energy in the flash steam, and recover water by condensing the flash steam.
It is useful to quantify the energy flowrate in the flash steam. This can be done using steam tables.
Example 3.13.3
Compare this to the 241 kW rate of energy blown down from the
boiler.It may be possible to use this flash steam: in this example
it represents approximately 49% of the energy flowrate in the
blowdown, and 14.1% of the water blown down.
Figure 3.13.2 shows a simple installation, which makes recovery of the 97 kW of energy flow,
and 157 kg/h of boiler quality water, extremely cost effective.
Figure 3.13.2 shows a simple installation, which makes recovery of the 97 kW of energy flow,
and 157 kg/h of boiler quality water, extremely cost effective.
Bottom blowdown valve
Timer controlled automatic bottom blowdown
It is now possible to automate the bottom blowdown valve using a proprietary timer
linked to a pneumatically operated ball valve
Methods of Detecting Water Level in Steam Boilers
Conductivity probes
Automatic Level Control Systems
On/off control
Modulating control
Deareator
The oxygen content in water decreases with
rising temperature, keep the hotwell at a
minimum of 85 °C.
Part-2
Introduction to Steam Distribution
The working pressure
A kilogram of steam at a higher pressure occupies less volume than at a lower pressure. It follows
that, if steam is generated in the boiler at a high pressure and also distributed at a high pressure,
the size of the distribution mains will be smaller than that for a low-pressure system for the same
heat load. Figure 10.1.2 illustrates this point.
Pipes and Pipe Sizing
Standards and wall thickness
Pipe material
Pipes for steam systems are commonly manufactured from carbon steel to
ASME B 16.9 A106. The same material may be used for condensate lines,
although copper tubing is preferred in some industries.
For high temperature superheated steam mains, additional alloying elements,
such as chromium and molybdenum, are included to improve tensile strength
and creep resistance at high temperatures.
Typically, pipes are supplied in 6 metre lengths

Pipeline sizing
Example 10.2.2
Consider the system shown in Figure 10.2.6, and determine the pipe size required from
the boiler to the unit heater branch line. Unit heater steam load = 270 kg/h.
The allowance for pipe fittings
• If the pipe is less than 50 metres long, add an allowance for fittings of 10% to 20%.
• If the pipe is over 100 metres long and is a fairly straight run with few fittings, an allowance
for fittings of 5% to 10% would be made.
• A similar pipe length, but with more fittings, would increase the allowance towards 20%.
In this instance, revised length = 150 m + 10% = 165 m
the pressure factor table (see Table 10.2.2):P1 = 7.0 bar g, F1 = 56.38 P2 = 6.6 bar g, F2 = 51.05
Substituting these pressure factors (P1 and P2) into Equation 10.2.8 will determine the value for
PDF
From factor 0.030, by following the row of figures to the right it will be seen that:
• A 40 mm pipe will carry 229.9 kg/h.
• A 50 mm pipe will carry 501.1 kg/h.
Since the application requires 270 kg/h, the 50 mm pipe would be selected.
Having sized the pipe using the pressure drop method, the velocity can be checked
if required.
Alternatively the pipe size can be calculated arithmetically.
The following information is required.
Example 10.2.3
Using the data from Example 10.2.2, determine the pipe size using the nomogram shown in
Figure 10.2.7
Method:
• Select the point on the saturated steam line at 7 bar g, and mark Point A.
• From point A, draw a horizontal line to the steam flowrate of 270 kg/h, and mark Point B.
• From point B, draw a vertical line towards the top of the nomogram (Point C).
• Draw a horizontal line from 0.24 bar/100 m on the pressure loss scale (Line DE).
• The point at which lines DE and BC cross will indicate the pipe size required. In this case,
a 40 mm pipe is too small, and a 50 mm pipe would be used.
Sizing pipes on velocity
As a general rule, a velocity of 25 to 40 m/s is used when saturated steam is the medium.
40 m/s should be considered a practical limit, as above this, noise and erosion will take place
particularly if the steam is wet. Some National standards quote velocities up to 76 m/s for
saturated steam. This can only be feasible if; the steam is dry, the pipe is very well insulated,
relatively short, straight, horizontal and can supply the required pressure at the point of use.
. In longer supply lines, it is often necessary to restrict velocities to 15 m/s to avoid high pressure
drops. It is recommended that pipelines over 50 m long are always checked for pressure drop,
no matter what the velocity.
By using Table 10.2.4 as a guide, it is possible to select pipe sizes from known data; steam
pressure, velocity and flowrate
Example 10.2.4 ‫ا__لحل ح_سابيا‬
A process requires 5 000 kg/h of dry saturated steam at 7 bar g. For the flow velocity not to exceed 25 m/s, determine the pipe size.
Since the steam velocity must not exceed 25 m/s, the pipe size must be at least 130 mm; the nearest commercially available size, 150 mm, would
be selected.
Again, a nomogram has been created to simplify this process, see Figure 10.2.8.
Example 10.2.5
Using the information from Example 10.2.4, use Figure 10.2.8 to determine the minimum
acceptable pipe size
Inlet pressure = 7 bar g
Steam flowrate = 5 000 kg/h
Maximum velocity = 25 m/s
Method:
• Draw a horizontal line from the saturation temperature line at 7 bar g (Point A) on the pressure
scale to the steam mass flowrate of 5 000 kg/h (Point B).
• From point B, draw a vertical line to the steam velocity of 25 m/s (Point C). From point C,
draw a horizontal line across the pipe diameter scale (Point D).
• A pipe with a bore of 130 mm is required; the nearest commercially available size, 150 mm,
would be selected
Sizing pipes for superheated steam duty
Superheated
Example 10.2.6 steam can be considered as a dry gas and therefore carries no moisture. Consequently there is
no chancethe
Utilising of pipe erosion
waste due toa suspended
heat from process, a water droplets, and steam
boiler/superheater velocities
generates 30 t/hcan
of be as high as 50
superheated to 70 m/s
steam
if the
at pressure
50 bar g anddrop permits
450°C this. The
for export to nomograms in Figures
a neighbouring power10.2.9 andIf10.2.10
station. can also
the velocity be used
is not for 50 m/s,
to exceed
superheated
determine: steam applications.
1. The pipe size based on velocity (use Figure 10.2.10).
2. The pressure drop if the pipe length, including allowances, is 200 m (use Figure 10.2.9).
Part 1
• Using Figure 10.2.8, draw a vertical line from 450°C on the temperature axis until it intersects the 50 bar line
(Point A).
• From point A, project a horizontal line to the left until it intersects the steam ‘mass flowrate’ scale of
30 000 kg/h (30 t/h) (Point B).
• From point B, project a line vertically upwards until it intersects 50 m/s on the ‘steam velocity’ scale
(Point C).
• From Point C, project a horizontal line to the right until it intersects the ‘inside pipe diameter’ scale.
The ‘inside pipe diameter’ scale recommends a pipe with an inside diameter of about 120 mm. From
Table 10.2.1 and assuming that the pipe will be Schedule 80 pipe, the nearest size would be 150 mm,
which has a bore of 146.4 mm.
Part 2
• Using Figure 10.2.7, draw a vertical line from 450°C on the temperature axis until it intersects the 50 bar line
(Point A).
• From point A, project a horizontal line to the right until it intersects the ‘steam mass flowrate’ scale of
30 000 kg/h (30 t/h) (Point B).
• From point B, project a line vertically upwards until it intersects the ‘inside pipe diameter’ scale of
(approximately) 146 mm (Point C).
• From Point C, project a horizontal line to the left until it intersects the ‘pressure loss bar/100 m’ scale
(Point D).
This pressure drop must be acceptable at the process plant.
Pressure drop formula 2 (Maximum pipe length: 200 metres)
Summary
• The selection of piping material and the wall thickness required for a particular installation is
stipulated in standards such as EN 45510 and ASME 31.1.
• Selecting the appropriate pipe size (nominal bore) for a particular application is based on
accurately identifying pressure and flowrate. The pipe size may be selected on the basis of:
- Velocity (usually pipes less than 50 m in length).
- Pressure drop (as a general rule, the pressure drop should not normally exceed 0.1 bar/50 m
Piping layout
Waterhammer and its effects
Waterhammer is the noise caused by slugs of condensate colliding at high velocity into
pipework fittings, plant, and equipment.
Branch lines
As a general rule, therefore, provided the branch line is not more than 10 metres in length, and
the pressure in the main is adequate, it is possible to size the pipe on a velocity of 25 to 40 m/s,
and not to worry about the pressure drop.
Rising ground and drainage
Good practice is to size the pipe on a low steam velocity of not more than 15 m/s, to run the line
at a slope of no less than 1:40, and install the drain points at not more than 15 metre intervals
(see Figure 10.3.11).
The objective is to prevent the condensate film on the bottom of the pipe increasing in thickness
to the point where droplets can be picked up by the steam flow.
Steam separators
Steam Traps: How to drain steam mains
Steam traps are the most effective and efficient method of draining condensate from
a steam distribution system.
The steam traps selected must suit the system in terms of:
• Pressure rating (the maximum possible working pressure )
• Capacity(Capacity, that is, the quantity of condensate to be discharged, which needs to be
divided into two categories; warm-up load and running load )
• Suitability
Warm-up load
For example, if the warm-up process required 50 kg of steam, and was to take 20 minutes, then the average
condensing rate would be:
remembering that the initial pressure in the main will be little more than atmospheric when the
warm-up process begins. However, the condensate loads will still generally be well within the
capacity of a DN15 ‘low capacity’ steam trap. Only in rare applications at very high pressures
(above 70 bar g), combined with large pipe sizes, will greater trap capacity be needed.
Steam traps*
Running load
for quick approximations of running load,

Table 10.3.3 can be used which shows
typical amounts of steam condensed
each hour
per 50 m of insulated steam main at
various pressures.
Suitability of steam trap A mains drain trap should consider the following constraints:
• Discharge temperature
• Frost damage • Waterhammer
Steam leaks
need prompt attention to ensure the steam system is working at its optimum efficiency
Figure 10.3.15 illustrates the steam loss for various sizes of hole at various pressures
Summary
• Steam lines should be arranged to fall in the direction of flow, at not less than 100 mm per 10 metres
of pipe (1:100). Steam lines rising in the direction of flow should slope at not less than 250 mm per 10 metres
of pipe (1:40).
• Steam lines should be drained at regular intervals of 30-50 m and at any low points in the system.
• Where drainage has to be provided in straight lengths of pipe, then a large bore pocket should be used
to collect condensate.
• If strainers are to be fitted, then they should be fitted on their sides.
• Branch connections should always be taken from the top of the main from where the driest steam is taken.
• Separators should be considered before any piece of steam using equipment ensuring that dry steam is used.
• Traps selected should be robust enough to avoid waterhammer damage and frost damage.

Pipe Expansion and Support
Pipes carrying hot fluids such as water or steam operate at higher temperatures
Example 10.4.1
A 30 m length of carbon steel pipe is to be used to transport steam at 4 bar g (152°C). If the pipe is installed at 10°C,
determine the expansion using Equation 10.4.1.
Example 10.4.2
Using Figure 10.4.1. Find the approximate expansion from 15°C, of 100 metres of carbon steel
pipework used to distribute steam at 265°C.
Temperature difference is 265 - 15°C = 250°C.
Where the diagonal temperature difference line of 250°C cuts the horizontal pipe length line
at 100 m, drop a vertical line down. For this example an approximate expansion of 330 mm
is indicated
Pipe Expansion and Support
The most economical
thickness of insulation
will depend upon several
factors:
• Installation cost.
• The heat carried by the
steam.
• Size of the pipework.
• Pipework temperature.
Other factors can be included in the equation, for instance, if a pipe is lagged with insulation providing
a reduction in heat losses to 10% of the uninsulated pipe, then it is multiplied by a factor of 0.1
Note: The constant 3.6 gives the answer in kg/h
Equivalent lengths:
Pair of mating flanges 0.5 m
Line size valve 1.0 m
Example 10.5.1
50 m of 100 mm pipe has 8 pairs of flanges and two valves, and carries saturated steam at 7 bar g.
Ambient temperature is 10°C, and the insulation efficiency is given as 0.1
With reference to Table 10.5.1 and the application of Equation 10.5.1: determine the quantity of
steam that will be condensed per hour:
Part 1 - Without insulation.
Part 2 - With the pipe insulated, but the valves and flanges are left without insulation.
Part 3 - Completely insulated.
Equivalent length of fittings:
(8 pairs of flanges @ 0.5 m) + (2 valves @ 1.0 m) = 6.0 m of pipe
Saturated steam at 7 bar g:
Part 1 - Without insulation:
Part 2 - Pipe insulated, but without insulation on the valves and flanges:
Consider the two elements separately:
Part 3 - Pipe and fittings insulated:
Relevant UK and
International Standards
Summary
To summarise the ‘Steam Distribution’ Block of The Steam and
Condensate Loop, the following
checklist may be used to ensure that a steam distribution system will
operate efficiently and effectively:
• Are steam mains properly sized?
• Are steam mains properly laid out?
• Are steam mains adequately drained?
• Are steam mains adequately air vented?
• Is adequate provision made for expansion?
• Can separators be used to improve steam quality?
• Are there leaking joints, glands or safety valves and why?
• Can redundant piping be blanked off or removed?
• Is the system effectively insulated?
COMBUSTION PRINCIPLES
C + O2 → CO2
2H2 +O2 → 2H2O
Stack gas composition

by measuring the
point A 2C + O2 → 2CO + heat
point B 2CO + O2 → 2CO2 + heat
Relationship between excess air,CO2,O2 and ,CO in flue gases
The acid dew point temperature for different sulfur levels.
Types of Oil
burners
1- steam-
atomizing burners.
2- air-
atomizing burners.
3- mechanical
atomizing (or pressure jet)
burners.
4- return flow
variable - nozzle pressure
atomizing
burners.
5- rotary-cup
burners.
GAS BURNERS:
These burners are limited to low heat release rates and are not usually used in
Premix Burners boiler applications
Nozzle-mix burners
It mix air and gas at the nozzle. As shown in Fig.(6), these burners are found in three arrangements
Blunt Pipe Nozzle-Mix Gas Small Ring Gas Burner Large Ring Gas Burner
Burner
Low NOx burners
Over 90% of the NOx from a typical flame is in the form of NO and the remainder is NO2. NO is
eventually converted to NO2
Three types of NOx: Fuel NOx and Prompt NOx
Thermal NOx
Formed from the reaction between Oxygen and Nitrogen at high temperature
Heat Balance
An energy flow diagram describes geographically how energy is transformed from fuel into useful energy, heat and losses
Balancing total energy entering a boiler against the energy that leaves the boiler in different forms
Goal: improve energy efficiency by reducing avoidable losses
Avoidable losses include:
Stack gas losses (excess air, stack gas temperature)
Losses by unburnt fuel
Blow down losses
Condensate losses
Convection and radiation
Stack temperature control
Feed water preheating using economizers
Combustion air pre-heating
Incomplete combustion minimization
Excess air control
Avoid radiation and convection heat loss
Automatic blow down control
Reduction of scaling and soot losses
Reduction of boiler steam pressure
Variable speed control
Controlling boiler loading
Proper boiler scheduling
Boiler replacement By Dr Amin Al-Ghonemy
Energy efficiency opportunities
. Stack Temperature Control
Keep as low as possible
f >200°C then recover waste heat
. Feed Water Preheating Economizers
otential to recover heat from 200 – 300 oC flue gases leaving a modern 3-pass shell boiler
. Combustion Air Preheating
f combustion air raised by 20°C = 1% improve thermal efficiency
. Minimize Incomplete Combustion
Smoke, high CO levels in exit flue gas
Causes:
Air shortage, fuel surplus, poor fuel distribution
Poor mixing of fuel and air
Oil-fired boiler:
Improper viscosity, worn tops, cabonization on dips, deterioration of diffusers or spinner plates
Coal-fired boiler: non-uniform coal size
. Excess Air Control
Excess air required for complete combustion
Optimum excess air levels varies
% excess air reduction = 0.6% efficiency rise
ortable or continuous oxygen analyzers
Radiation and Convection Heat Loss Minimization
ixed heat loss from boiler shell, regardless of boiler output
epairing insulation can reduce loss
Automatic Blow down Control
ense and respond to boiler water conductivity and pH
Scaling and Soot Loss Reduction
very 22 oC increase in stack temperature = 1% efficiency loss
mm of soot = 2.5% fuel increase
Reduced Boiler Steam Pressure
ower steam pressure
lower saturated steam temperature
lower flue gas temperature
team generation pressure dictated by process
0. Variable Speed Control for Fans, Blowers and Pumps
uited for fans, blowers, pumps
hould be considered if boiler loads are variable
1. Control Boiler Loading
Maximum boiler efficiency: 65-85% of rated load
ignificant efficiency loss: < 25% of rated load
2. Proper Boiler Scheduling
ptimum efficiency: 65-85% at full load
ew boilers at high loads is more efficient than large number at low loads
3. Boiler Replacement
inancially attractive if existing boiler is
ld and inefficient
ot capable of firing cheaper substitution fuel
ver or under-sized for present requirements
ot designed for ideal loading conditions
adiation is the dominate form of heat transfer in the furnace.
n the convection pass area, convection is the dominate form of heat transfer.
This is why GR works to increase temperatures at lower loads. The increased mass flow through the unit increase
the amount of convective heat transfer of the convective surfaces.
leanliness of the heating surfaces can impact heat transfer
Combustion EFFICIENCY AND LOSSES
Simplified flue gas loss calculation:
Fuel fired: heavy fuel oil, Flue gas temperature: 285°C, Ambient temperature: 30°C ,
Oxygen content: 4% by volume, dry basis. Radiation/blowdown losses: 6%
The figure shown below refers to heavy fuel oil. Note it is based on gross calorific value
and on an ambient temperature of 20°C. The calculation procedure is shown
Correct the flue gas temperature T(fg) for the higher

ambient temperature Ta
T( fg)corrected = T(fg) - [ Ta - 20 ] = 275°C Start from
e oxygen composition of 4% on the vertical axis and move
rizontally, to the oxygen line.
Move vertically down to the excess air figure
n this case, 22).
Move vertically up to the flue gas temperature line (275°C)
d then horizontally to the " % flue gas loss. Axis
Read off the flue gas loss (in this case, 17%)
Estimate the combustion efficiency: Total heat available 100% ,
ss flue gas loss -17% Approximate efficiency 83%.
Basic ion exchange processes
in water treatment
Softening
Demineralisation
The cation resin is used in the hydrogen form (H+) and the anion resin in the hydroxyl form
(OH–), so that the cation resin must be regenerated with an acid and the anion resin with an alkali.
A degasifier is used to remove the carbon dioxide created after cation exchange when the water contains a significant
concentration of bicarbonate.
SAC (H)
DEG
DEG
Raw water Decationised water

Decat + degassed water
SBA (OH)
Demineralised water
Decat + degassed water
Water Water softening
softening In water softening a cation resin in the sodium form is used to remove hard metal ions
(calcium and magnesium) from the water along with troublesome traces of iron and
manganese, which are also often present. These ions are replaced by an equivalent quantity
of sodium, so that the total dissolved solids content of the water remains unchanged as does
the pH and anionic content. At regular time intervals the resin is cleaned (Figure 3). This
involves passing influent water back up through the resin to remove suspended solids,
passing a regenerant solution down through the resin to replace the ions that have bound to
the resin and then rinsing again with water to remove the regenerant solution. In water
softening the regenerant is a strong solution of sodium chloride.
Regeneration
A demineralisation line (click to enlarge)
Regeneration
Regeneration is done in thoroughfare, which means that the regenerant first goes through the strong resin, which requires
an excess of regenerant, and the regenerant not consumed by the strong resin is usually sufficient to regenerate the weak
resin without additional dosage.
The cation resins are regenerated with a strong acid, preferably HCl, because H2SO4 can precipitate calcium.
The anion resins are regenerated with caustic soda.
Regeneration of the demineralisation line
Q&A
Boilers classification & steam making theory and practice

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By Dr Amin Al-Ghonemy

Scales, Pitting corrosion and failures

Fig.(1): Boiling of water in a kettle

Fig.(2): separate the upward from the downward currents

Fig.(4): Boiling of water in a U-tube Fig.(5) Fig.(6)

Three types of boiler ratings are commonly used:

'From and at' rating:

a boiler horsepower is the amount of energy required

the same as a ‘from and at’ rating, so using

Consequently: If 17 250 lb/h of steam is required,

Heat exported in steam

Heat provided by the fuel Calorific value

Modern boilers with the latest burners may have:

Feedwater check valves

-protection for the

-test the water gauges at

To test a gauge glass, the following procedure should be followed:

A number of problems are associated with this:

The header Operating pressure:

There are two common classifications of hardness:

Non-alkaline hardness and carbonates

External water treatment processes can be listed as:

Base exchange softening :

Annual cost saving

Closed loop electronic

To obtain the energy flow in kW:

Typically, pipes are supplied in 6 metre lengths

for quick approximations of running load,

Part 1 - Without insulation:

Stack gas composition

Correct the flue gas temperature T(fg) for the higher

Raw water Decationised water

Regeneration of the demineralisation line

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