DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF

JOS

05/27/23
EEE 407
CONTROL ENGINEERING II

DR. A. T. SALAWUDEEN
1

Email: atsalawudeen@gmail.com
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
In the modeling of systems in the classical

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sense, we assume a cause and effect
relationship only
 DRAWBACKS OF CLASSICAL CONCEPT OF
TRANSFER FUNCTION
 Defined under zero initial conditions

 Applicable to LTI systems

 Restricted to SISO systems

 Provides no info on internal state

2
 Trial-and-error procedures
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS

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 IMPLICATIONS OF DRAWBACKS
 Complex for MIMO systems

 May not yield an optimum control

system wrt to performance
 Lack of info on feedback and internal
states may affect stability and
performance

3
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
In order to overcome these limitations,

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especially when dealing with Time-
Varying Systems:
“SYSTEMS IN WHICH ONE OR MORE
OF THE PARAMETERS VARY WITH
TIME”
The idea of the state-variable was born.
NOTE: This was very critical in the
attempt to go to space
4
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 STATE: “A set of numbers x1 , ..., xn  such

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that the knowledge of these numbers and
the input functions u1 , ...,
will,un with the
equations describing the dynamics,
provide the future state and output
 y1 ,system”
of the ..., yn 
u1 y1
STATE
un SYSTEM yn

x1 xn
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 In deriving a mathematical model for a physical

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system one usually begins with a system of
differential equations.
 We will call this system of differential
equations a state space representation.
 The solution to this system is a vector that
depends on time and which contains enough
information to completely determine the
trajectory of the dynamical system.
 This vector is referred to as the state of the
system, and the components of this vector are 6
called the state variables
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 Advantages of using the state space

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representation compared with the classical method
  
 Ability to handle MIMO systems;
 State system model includes the internal state
variables as well as the output variable;
 State model provides a time-domain solution;
 The form of the solution is the same as for a
single 1st-order differential equation;
 Effect of initial conditions can be easily
incorporated in the solution;
 The matrix/vector modeling is very efficient from
a computational standpoint for computer
7
implementation
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 State space model: a representation of

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the dynamics of an nth order system as a
first order differential equation in an n-
vector, which is called the state.


x  Ax  Bu
State Equation


y  Cx  Du
Output Equation

 A=State Matrix (n x n)
 B= Input Matrix (n x m)
8
 C= Output Matrix (p x n)
 D= Direct Transition Matrix (p x m)
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS

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 Find the state model of the ff D.E:
5 4 3 2
d y d y d y d y dy
4 5  6 4  3 3  2 2   3 y  4u
dt dt dt dt dt
 NOTE: The number of state variables is
equal to the highest order of the
differential
Exercise 3 2
Y ( s) 2s  s  s  2
 3 2
9

U ( s ) s  4 s  5s  2
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS

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 DERIVATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION
FROM STATE MODEL
 Recall:
x  Ax  Bu
y  Cx  Du
 Assuming zero initial conditions and laplace
transforming:

sX ( s )  AX ( s )  BU ( s ) (1)

 Y ( s )  CX ( s )  DU ( s ) (2)
10
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS

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 From (1):
X s sI  A  BU s 
 X s   sI  A BU s 
1
 (3)
 Putting (3) into (2)
Y s   C sI  A BU s   DU s 
1

 Y s   C sI  A B  D U s 
1

Y s 
 T s    C sI  A B  D
1

U s 
In matrix a lg ebra form
adjsI  AB 11
T s   C D
detsI  A
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 The adjoint of a matrix is found by replacing

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each element by its co-factor and transposing
(interchanging rows and columns)
1 T
 a11 a12 a13   c11  c12 c13 
a a a  
  c21 c22  c23 
 21 22 23   
 a31 a32 a33   c31  c32 c33 
 c11  c21 c31 
  c12 c22  c32 
  12

 c13  c23 c33 

 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 ss2tf

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 Syntax: [num,den] = ss2tf(A,B,C,D,iu)
 Description: ss2tf converts a state-space
model of a given system to an equivalent
transfer function representation. It returns
the transfer function
Y s 
T s    C sI  A B  D
1

U s 
 from the iuth input.
 NOTE: iu must be specified for systems with
13
more than one input.
:•.

MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS

STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 Ex: Obtain the transfer function of the

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following state space representation

0 1 0  0 
X   0 0   
1  x   25 u

 5  25  5  120
y  1 0 0x
 Using both classical method and MATLAB

14
:•.

MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS

STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 Vector den contains the coefficients of the
denominator in descending powers of s.

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 The numerator coefficients are returned in array
num with as many rows as there are outputs y.
 Ex: Given the state model of a system as follows

X   0 1  1 1
  x   u
 25  4 0 1
 Determine the transfer function of the system
1 0 
y x
0 1 
15

 Determine
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS

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 tf2ss: Transfer function to state-space
conversion.
 [A,B,C,D] = tf2ss(num,den)

calculates the state-space representation:

x  Ax  Bu
y  Cx  Du
of the system:
nums 
 T s  
dens  16
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
Example:

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An armature controlled DC Motor with load
inertia mounted on its shaft is as shown:

17
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 SYSTEM MODELING (Armature Controlled DC Motor )
 Every control system designed for a specific application has to meet

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certain performance specifications.
 For the armature controlled DC motor under study,
 the variation in inertia,
 inductance,
 friction, and
 the resistance of the motor which are difficult to visualize and organize,

results in poor response:

 high overshoot,
 poor settling time and
 large steady state error

leading to a control system (DC motor) that does not give

optimal performance in some defined sense.
 Under this circumstance, it is necessary to introduce a
18
corrective subsystem (controller or compensator) to
improve the performance of the DC Motor.
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
The inputs are the armature voltage Ea and the load

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

torque Τl.
 The outputs are the motor torque Τ and the angular
m
speed of the motor,ω.
 Dependent variables are the armature current i and
a
the back e.m.f of the motor Eb.
R and La are the electrical resistance and
a
inductance of the armature circuit
 f and j are the viscous damping coefficient and load
o
inertia .
 K and K are the motor and back emf constants of
m b 19
the motor respectively.
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS

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 The State Model of the DC motor system is:

 fo km 
 0
d   j 
j  
1  Ea
 di     kb   
 a   Ra ia   
  La 
 La La 
 And the output eqn:
 
  1 0 
ia  20
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS

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 The motor parameters are:
 Motor Inertia, J = 0.0106Kg-m2

 Viscous friction, fo = 0.00286 N-m/rad/sec

 Resistance Ra = 13.3Ω
 Armature Inductance La = 3.0H
 Motor constant, km = 1.168V/rad/sec
 Back e.m.f constant, kb = 1.168V/rad/sec

21
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS

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 PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS
 The DC Motor is rotating at 0.83rad/sec with an
input voltage of 1V. Since one of the most basic
requirements of any control system is that it should
rotate at the desired speed, the steady-state error
of the motor speed should be less or equal to 1%.
 The motor should accelerate to its steady-state
speed quickly after it is turned on. The motor’s
settling time is chosen as 2sec.
 Since a speed faster than the required speed may
damage the DC motor, the motor overshoot should be 22
less than or equal to 5%.
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS

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 TESTS FOR CONTROLLABILITY AND
OBSERVABILITY
 The concept of controllability and observability
in the design of controllers for dynamic
systems mainly involves verifying from the
outset whether a solution exist to the control
problem.
 If a solution does exist, it gives the designer
the privilege of placing the poles anywhere
along the s-plane that will give the desired
23
performance.
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS

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 Two fundamental questions need to be answered
in determining whether a control solution exists
or not:
 “Can we transfer the system from any initial
state (x(to)) to any other desired state (x(t)) in
finite time by application of a suitable control
force?”
 “Knowing the output vector (y(t)) for a finite

length of time, can we determine the initial

state of the system (x(to))?” 24
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS

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 The answers to these questions were provided by
Kalman:
 “A system is completely state controllable if it is
possible to transfer the system from any initial
state (x(to)) to any other desired state (x(t)) in
finite time (t-to › 0) by application of a suitable
control force u(t)”
 A system is completely state observable if the
initial state (x(to)) can be completely identified
by measurements of the output y(t) over a finite 25
time interval”
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS

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 All physical systems are practically controllable
and observable whereas mathematical models
may not be.
 Any such mathematical model in the long run
may not be an accurate representation of the
physical system and as such may not yield an
optimal control solution.
 Any system that is controllable is also
stabilizable
 Any system that is observable is also26
detectable
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 We will consider two approaches to determining

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controllability and observability: KALMAN and
GILBERT tests
 The Gilbert’s test provides a better physical
insight into the problem
 The Gilbert’s test requires that the system be
transformed into a canonical form while the
Kalman’s test can be applied to any system
 The Gilbert’s test considers an n-th order SI
LTI while an n-th order MI or MIMO LTI is
considered by the Kalman’s test 27
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 KALMAN MATRIX TEST

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 A system is completely state controllable if:


M c  B AB ... A B n 1

 is of FULL RANK i.e. it has n-linearly
independent columns
 A system is completely state observable if:

  C 
 CA 
Mo   
 ... 
CA n 1 
 
 is of FULL RANK i.e. it has n-linearly28
independent rows
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 clc;
 j=0.0106;
 fo=0.00286;
 km=1.168;

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 kb=1.168;
 Ra=13.3;
 La=3;
 A=[-fo/j km/j;-kb/La -Ra/La];
 B=[0;1/La];
 C=[1 0];
 D=0;
 [num,den]=ss2tf(A,B,C,D)
 Mc=[B A*B]
 ans=det(Mc)
 if (det(Mc)~=0)
 'The System is Completely Controllable'
 else
 'The System is NOT Completely Controllable'
 end
 Mo=[C; C*A]
 ans=det(Mo)
 if (det(Mo)~=0)
 'The System is Completely Observable' 29
 else
 'The System is NOT Completely Observable'
 end
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 The Gilbert’s Test gives a better physical
insight into SI LTI systems and involves

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transforming the state model into a canonical
form.
 It involves the following steps:

 Given the state model, determine and solve the

characteristic equation
A  I   0
 Determine the eigenvalues (i.e. roots) of the
characteristic equation
1 , 2 , 3
30
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 Formthe Modal Matrix M using the Vander

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Monde type (for example for n=3)
1 1 1 

M  1 2 3 
 2 2 2

1 2 3 
 Determine the vector Matrix
~ 1
BM B
 If
~
no element of B is zero, the system is said to
31

be completely state controllable

 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS

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 If there is no path from any input to one of the
decoupled differential equations, the
corresponding mode is termed UNCONTROLLABLE
 It means that portion of the system is not
affected by any input
 If it has no uncontrollable modes, it is said to be
‘completely’ CONTROLLABLE

32
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS

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 Determine the output vector matrix
y  cMz
 If no element of y is zero, the system is said
to be completely state observable
 Determine the state model in canonical form

~
z  z  B u
y  cMz
33
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 If one of the state variables of the decoupled

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differential equations is not added to any of the
system’s output, the corresponding mode is
termed UNOBSERVABLE
 The response of that system is not visible from
any input
 A system with no unobservable modes is said to
be ‘completely’ OBSERVABLE

34
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 Determine whether the given system is
completely state controllable and/or state

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observable using the Gilbert’s Test. Hence
determine the state equation in canonical form
 1 0 1  1 
X   0 1 1  x  0u
   
 0 0  2 1
Y   1 1 2x
 We can also use the CLI of Matlab to solve this
problem
35
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 All control systems exhibit transient behaviour
(causing the output to deviate from the input

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instantaneously) to certain degree before a
steady state is reached.
 This is because inertia, mass, inductances which
are all energy storage devices are inherent in
physical systems.
 Transient response is defined as that part of the
system response that goes to zero as time goes
to infinity while the steady state response
indicates where the system output ends up as
time approaches infinity. 36
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 The response of a second order system
describing the transient and steady state

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parameters: Peak Overshot, Settling Time,
Steady State Error, etc is as shown

37
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 RESPONSE OF THE DC MOTOR TO A STEP SIGNAL
A step signal is one of the standard test signal

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used to carry out mathematical and graphical
analysis of a control system.
 Used to investigate the behaviour of a dynamic
system when the control problem under
investigation is a function of sudden
disturbance.
 The values obtained from the response of the
system to a step signal are then compared with
the design/performance specifications
38
 MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS
STATE-SPACE CONCEPTS
 The following Matlab program is used:
 sys = ss(A, B, C, D)

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 t = 0:0.01:3
 step(sys, t), title('Open loop Response')
 NOTE: The stepinfo command can also be used to obtain Open loop Response

the shown values 1.4

System: sys
Peak amplitude: 1.09
1.2 Overshoot (%): 30.4
At time (sec): 0.51

1 System: sys
Settling Time (sec): 1.65

0.8
Am plitude

System: sys
System: sys Final Value: 0.833

0.6 Rise Time (sec): 0.21

0.4

0.2
39

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time (sec)