NANOELECTRONICS

SRUTHI.N
NSSCE
LIMITATIONS
• PHYSICAL LIMITATIONS
• MATERIAL LIMITATIONS
• DEVICE LIMITATIONS
• CIRCUIT AND SYSTEM LIMITATIONS
PHYSICAL LIMITATIONS
• ELECTROMAGNETICS
• QUANTAM MECHANICS
• THERMODYNAMICS
• INDEPENDENT OF THE PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
MATERIAL LIMITATION
• INTERCONNECT M.L
• STORAGE ENERGY
• LIMITATION ON CARRIER TRANSMISSION
• ABILITY OF HEAT REMOVAL
TECHNOLOGY LIMITATIONS
• OPTICAL LITHOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
• FABRICATION PROCESS
DEVICE LIMITATION
• ULTRA THIN GATE OXIDE
• EFFECT OF DOPANT NUMBER FLUCTUATION
• HIGH FIELD EFFECT IN SILICON
• QUANTUM EFFECT IN INVERSE CHARGE REGION
• BAND TO BAND TUNNELING
• MOBILITY DEGRADATION
CIRCUIT AND SYSTEM
• INTERCONNECTION
• RELIABILITY
• HEAT REMOVING
CHARACTERISTIC LENGTH OF
MESOSCOPIC SYSTEM
• DEBROGLIE W.L
• For an electron of momentum p,there corresponds a wave of wavelength
B= h/p.
• P=m*v (m*-effective mass of an electron)
• MEAN FREE PATH
• The distance covered by the electron between two inelastic collisions is usually called the
mean free path le of the electron in the solid.
• Le=v e ( -relaxation time)

• DIFFUSION LENGTH
• Diffusive –L> mfp;
CONTD…
• the concept of diffusion length is used very often; for instance, if electrons diffuse within a p-type
semiconductor, their concentration diminishes exponentially with distance with a decay length
equal to Le.
• systems is usually explained by means of the Boltzmann equation
• SCREENING LENGTH
• In extrinsic semiconductors, the dopants or impurities are usually ionized and constitute a main factor
contributing to scattering.
• Because of the screening of free carriers by charges of the opposite polarity, the effect of the impurity over the
distance is partially reduced.
• It is found that the variation of the potential is modulated by the term exp(−r/λs)
where λs is called the screening length and is given by

• 10-100nm range
CONTD…
• Localization length
• transport in disordered materials
• In disordered materials,
• the electrons move by “hopping” transport between localized states
QUANTUM COHERENCE
• The behaviour of the electron should be described quantum mechanically,
• using Schrödinger equation
• If the electron interacts inelastically with a defect, or any impurity, the electrons change their energy and
momentum, as well as the phase of their wave function
• The phase coherence length Lφ is defined as the distance travelled by the electron without the carrier wave
changing its phase. Evidently, interference effects in the electron waves should only be observed if the
particles move over distances of the order of, or smaller than, Lφ.
• electrons are practically unscattered, Lφ should be a length similar to the inelastic scattering mean free path
Le.
• the loss of coherence is usually called dephasing
QUANTUM WELLS, WIRES, AND DOTS

• we have an electron confined within a box of dimensions Lx , Ly ,Lz. If the characteristic length is λ, we can
have the following situations:
(i) λ  Lx,Ly,Lz In this case the electron behaves as in a regular 3D bulk semiconductor.
(ii) λ > Lx and Lx  Ly,Lz In this situation we have a 2D semiconductor perpendicular to the x-axis. This
mesoscopic system is also called a quantum well
(iii) λ > Lx , Ly and Lx,Ly  Lz ,corresponds to a 1D semiconductor or quantum wire, located along the z-axis
(iv) λ  Lx,Ly,Lz, In this case it is said that we have a 0D semiconductor or a quantum dot
FABRICATION

• PHYSICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION

• GAS PHASE SUBDIVIDED INTO 4 GROUPS
• EVAPOURISATION
• SPUTTERING
• ION PLATTING
• LASER ABLATION
PVD(RESISTIVE METHOD)
CONTD
• BOTTOM UP APPROACH
• MATERIAL IS EVAPORATED IN VACCUM
• PARTICLES TRAVEL TOWARDS COLD SUBSTRATE DEPOSITED AND
CONDENSE BACK TO A SOLID STATE
• HEAT IS GENERATED TO EVAPORATE THE MATERIAL BY PASSING
CURRENT THROUGH A HIGH RESISTIVE COIL
PVD(SPUTTERING METHOD)
CONTD..
• BOTTOM UP APPROACH
• THE MATERIAL IS EVAPORATED IN VACCUM
• PARTICLES TRAVEL TOWARDS COLD SUBSTRATE DEPOSITED AND
CONDENSE BACK TO A SOLID STATE
• ATOMS ARE EJECTED FROM A SOLID TARGET DUE TO BOMBARDMENT
OF TARGET BY ENERGETIC ELECTRONS
CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION
CONTD..
• BOTTOM UP APPROACH
• SUBSTRATE IS EXPOSED TO ONE OR MORE VOLATILE CHEMICALS
WHICH REACT AND DECOMPOSE ON THE SUBSTRATE SURFACE TO
PRODUCE DESIRED COMPOUND.
• BY PRODUCTS ARE REMOVED BY THE CARRIER GAS FLOW THROUGH THE
REACTION CHAMBER
• CVD USED TO PRODUCE HIGH PURITY ,HIGH PERFORMANCE SOLID
MATERIALS
• TO AVOID UNDESIRABLE REACTIONS SURFACE TEMPARATURE,DEPOSITION
TIME,PRESSURE AND TYPE OF SURFACE IS CAREFULLY SELECTED.
MOLECULAR BEAM EPITAXY
contd
• UHV technique for producing high quality epitaxial structures
• “Beam” molecules doesnot collide with either chamber walls or
existent gas
• MBE done in vaccum chamber
• The beam refers to evaporated atoms
CONTD..
• The constituents of the deposited film are contained in mini furnaces.
• During heating some vapor pressure develops and an atom beam is emitted through
successive apertures. The beam hits the wafer surface to which the atoms remain partially
adhered.
• There, they can react with atoms of a second or third beam, which is also directed towards
the wafer surface. Reaction takes place and finally the film is deposited.
• The film deposition depend on the selection of the parameters like wafer temperature, the
ratios of the beam densities, the purity of the surface, etc.
• The chamber contains many devices like low energy electron diffraction (LEED), secondary
ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS), and Auger and Raman spectroscopy, for the in situ inspection
of the growing layer.
• The quality of the vacuum is controlled by a residual gas analyzer.
ION IMPLANTATION
CONTD…
• Ion implantation is a doping technique with which ions are shot into a substrate
• The desired ion species is introduced as a gaseous compound through a needle valve. The compound is
dissociated and ionized with an electron beam.
• The arising ions (including the unwanted ones) are pulled out of the source area and brought to an energy of
30 keV by a preliminary acceleration.
• The ions pass through a magnetic field filter which is adjusted in such a way that only the desired ion type
can run into the acceleration tube
• The magnetic field filter is based on the fact that the Lorentz force for a moving charged particle compels a
circular path
• Plates used to direct the ions to the substrate
ADVANTAGES
• Precise control of dose and range
• Fast process
• Low temperature process
• Wide range of impurities
FORMATION OF SiO2
• DRY AND WET OXIDATION
• DRY-PURE O2 PASSED ONTO THE WAFER FOR OXIDE FORMATION
• WET-OXYGEN IS LIBERATED BY PASSING NITROGEN THROUGH WATER
CONTD..

• Carried out in a furnace(quartz tube) with O2 gas environment (either pure oxygen (dry oxidation) Or
nitrogen driven through water (wet oxidation)) at about 1100ºC.
• Oxygen atoms combine readily with Si atoms
• Linear- oxide grows in equal amounts for each time Around 500Å thick
• Above 500Å, in order for oxide layer to keep growing, oxygen and Si atoms must be in contact
• SiO2 layer separate the oxygen in the chamber from the wafer surface
FABRICATION OF NANO PARTICLES
• nanoparticle is defined as a ball or a ball-like molecule which consists of a few 10 to some 10,000 atoms
interconnected by interatomic forces
• The deposited nanoparticle layers differ from uniform layers, particularly due to the presence of grain
boundaries, which leads to different electrical and optical behavior
A) Grinding with Iron Balls
• mechanical crushing process
• The machine consists of
• special steel balls,few millimeters in diameter, in a water cooled steel vessel
• a high speed motor driving shaft.
• The material to be crushed is added in the form of a powder of about 50 μm diameter grain size.
• After filling the container with liquid nitrogen, the rotating shaft grinds the material. The steel balls exert
force on the material, the strain is increased, then dislocations are produced, and finally the dislocations
produce new grain boundaries which are smaller than the initial ones
Contd..
• The size of the nanoparticles obtained in the process depends on many factors like type of source material,
grinding hour, the weight ratio of the steel balls to the initial material particles etc
• Preferred for the synthesis of metal oxides such as Al2O3,TiO2 .
Contd..
B) Laser ablation method
Contd…
• The removal of material from solid surfaces by the technique of laser ablation
• Deposition takes place in a ultra high vacuum or in the presence of some neutral gas such as Argon at a
certain pressure
• A high power pulsed laser is focused onto the target material and, when the laser fluence (power density)
exceeds the ablation threshold value for the material, chemical bonds are broken and the material is
fractured into energetic fragments, typically a mixture of neutral atoms, molecules, and ions.
• Since these fragments are highly energetic, the process is considered as an explosive evaporation.
• The vapor (plume) is collected on a substrate placed a short distance from the target. The advantage of this
procedure is a 1:1 transfer of the material composition from the raw material to the particles.
SQUARE QUANTUM WELL
Contd…
• It is evident that for states with energy E<V0 we have bound states, i.e. the electrons are trapped inside the
well of width
• the solutions are symmetric or antisymmetric, and therefore should be sine or cosine functions.
PARABOLIC AND TRIANGULAR Q.W
• The case of the parabolic well is well known in solid state physics since the vibrations of the atoms in a
crystal lattice, whose quantification gives rise to phonons, are described in a first approximation by harmonic
oscillators.
• Parabolic quantum well profiles can also be produced by the MBE growth technique
TRIANGULAR
CONTD
• e charge of the electron
• F uniform electric field
SCANNING TUNELLING MICROSCOPE
• STM is a device used to observe the properties and behaviours of sub
atomic particles
• Non optical device that uses the interaction of subatomic particles.
• It produces the image of the specimen
• A sharp tip is raster scanned over a sample surface at a very short
separation(1 nm)
• The signal monitored for the feedback loop is quantum tunnelling current
• A piezoelectric scanner moves the tip up and down as it is scanned across
the sample for maintaining constant current
contd
• Electron as a wave
• Constant current
• Constant height
Atomic Force Microscopy
• High resolution probe like microscope
• Used for imaging ,measuring,manipulating matter at nanoscale
• Works by pushing the cantilever across the sample
• Tip movement of the cantilever is analysed to obtain the 3D image of
the sample
• Cantilever of length 100Å
contd
SEM
CONTD..

• Anode -+ve potential,Accelaration

• Magnetic lens-condenser lens for focussing
to 50Å
Scanning coils-Deflection

Disadvantages:Can produce the image of a surface of few nm deep

SPECIMEN INTERACTION IN SEM
• SECONDARY E.EMISSION
• AUGER E.EMISSION
• BACKSCATTERED E.EMISSION
• Xray
• Cathodoluminiscence
• Range of Electron emission:5m
• <3nm:Auger
• <10nm:Secondary
• Backscattered
• Xray:K
• Xray:L
Detection of Secondary Electron
• K shell electron knocked out
• Most common imaging mode of SEM is the monitoring of low energy
secondary electron

• Detection of B.S.Electrons
• Incoming beam will move near the nucleus and will make an electron move ie
in U shape(opp. to that of the electron beam)
• Reflected electron
• Normally incident(180 degree scattered)
• S.E number  Atomic number
Detection of Xrays
• When the secondary electrons leave the outer most electron try to
take the position of the second.electron and due to this there is a
difference of energy hence xray is generated.
• De-energization
• Atomic number can be noted
Detection of Cathodoluminoscence
Emission of light when atoms excited by high energy electrons return to
their ground state
Detection of Auger Electrons
• Xray generated will knock out another electron called the knock out electron
• For a Thin sample
• Elastic
• Inelastic
• Unscattered
• Unscattered: Thicker regions fewer unscattered electrons
• I.S.E:Loss of energy
Kakkuchi bands:Alternate dark and bright bands seen used for the detection of atomic spacing
Used to know the electron pattern
• E.S:No energy loss,Deflected feom original path
Satisfies Bragg’s law

Thinner areas Lighter

Thicker areas Darker
X Ray Diffraction analysis