BRM Chapter 5

Research proposal (10 pages excluding references)
The following is the suggested proposal format modified from the FYP guideline:
Cover page (please refer to FYP template)
Table of contents (With page numbers)
1. Title
2. Introduction
2.1 Statement of the problem(s) – background (Managerial questions)
2.2 Objectives of the study (Research Questions)
3. Literature review & hypotheses development – (Investigative questions)
3.1 LR of DV
3.2 LR of IV1 – H1
3.2 LR of MV – H2 and/or H3
4. Methodology (Measureable questions)
4.1 Measures of key variables
4.2 research design – data collection and sample
5. Time schedule/action plan
6. References
©McGraw Hill 5-1
Research proposal presentation (10 mins per group maximum)
Pre Date: 12 April (Week 10, 8:00 – 10:00am):
• Not all members need to speak, 4-5 presenters would be ideal .

• Attendance to all presentation periods is compulsory.
• Please prepare a PowerPoint slides and bring the hardcopy on the day
of the presentation (print on both sides 双面 , Grayscale 黑白 ).
• Possible 5mins Q&A after each pre.
©McGraw Hill 5-2

Chapter 5 1
S TA G E 2 : S A M P L I N G D E S I G N
Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
5-3
Research Thought Leaders
“When you sample something, you're using the

crutch of borrowing chords and melodies from a
song that's already great, that's already stood the
test of time, that's already special.”
Gerald Earl Gillum (G-Eazy),

American rapper and record
producer
©McGraw Hill 5-4

Learning Objectives
Understand . . .
• The six tasks that comprise sampling design.
• The premises on which sampling theory is based.
• The characteristics of accuracy and precision for measuring
sample validity.
• The two categories of sampling methods and the variety of
sampling techniques within each category.
• The various sampling techniques within each category.
©McGraw Hill 5-5

Sampling
Design in the
Research
Process
©McGraw Hill 5-6

Steps in Sampling Design
Define Target Population & Case
This subprocess of research design answers the
question: From whom or what (target (describe those entities—collectively
population) does the data need to be collected and individually—that possess the
and how and how many (cases)? desired information about the chosen
variables and their parameters
Define Population Parameters
(summary descriptors—proportion, mean,
variance—of study variables) in the
population.
Define & Evaluate Sample Frames
Define Number of Cases
Define Sampling Method
Define Selection & Recruiting

Protocols
©McGraw Hill 5-7
Sampling Design and Data Security
Objective of the study is to understand data
security breaches
1. Target population might be “any event where
data were accessed by an unauthorized source.”
• Will exploratory data breaches by hackers also be part
of the target population?
2. Population parameters: whether data were accessed but not modified, what
modifications occurred, whether data were permanently lost, the method of access,
etc.
3. Sample frame: the list of every such data breach within a specified period of time
(e.g., five years).
4. Number of Cases: depends on the size, variability, and accessibility of the target
population.
5. Appropriate sampling method: special forensic computing skills
6. Sampling selection and recruitment protocols
©McGraw Hill 5-8
Sampling Design and Data Security
Step 1: Define population and case/Unit of

analysis: data security breaches (Providing
Definition)
Step 2: The population parameters of Interests:

• Time occurred
• Whether data were permanently lost
• Response time
Step 3: Define sample frame:

• Time (e.g., five years)
• Number of cases
• Size, variability, and accessibility of
the target population
©McGraw Hill 3-9
Output
Time Response Permanent

occurred time Lost?
Frame:
Data Breach 2019/03/23 2 hours 1=No
• Within five years
Case 1
• Census (evaluating all
instances of Data Breach 2019/02/23 3 hours 0=Yes
unauthorized access)) Case 2
…..
Case 100
Case 101
©McGraw Hill 3-10

Step 1 Define the target population and case
•People (individuals or groups: e.g., employees,

customers, suppliers).
•Texts (e.g., annual reports, productivity
records, social media posts, emails, memos,
reports). •Organizations or institutions (companies,
trade associations, professional online
communities, unions).
•Settings and environments (e.g., warehouses, •Events and happenings (e.g., trade
stores, factories, distribution facilities). association meetings, presentations to
financial analysts, industry conventions,
employee picnics).
•Objects or artifacts (e.g., products, machines,

production waste or byproducts, tools, maps, process
©McGraw Hill models, ads).
5-11
Example: Metro University Dining Study
The researchers at Metro University are exploring the
feasibility of creating a dining club whose facilities would be
available on a membership basis.
Research question: Would a membership dining club be a

viable enterprise?
Investigative questions:
Who would patronize the club?
How much would they spend?
What days would be most popular?
What menu and service formats?
How often would they use the club?
Who would join the club?

©McGraw Hill 5-12
Step 2 in Sampling Design

Protocols
©McGraw Hill 5-13

Step 2 Define the population parameters
 Population parameters are summary descriptors (e.g., incidence

proportion, mean, variance, etc.) of variables of interest in the population.
 Sample statistics are descriptors of those same relevant variables
computed from sample data.
 Sample statistics are used as estimators of population parameters.
 A different level of data will be collected depending on how measurement

questions are phrased.
©McGraw Hill 5-14

Metro U: Population Parameters 2
©McGraw Hill 5-15

Review of data type
Depending on how measurement questions are phrased, each will collect a different level
of data. Each different level of data also generates different sample statistics. Thus,
choosing the parameters of interest will actually dictate your sample type and its size.
©McGraw Hill 5-16

Use the sample characteristics to estimate the population characteristics
Variable of Population Population Variable of Population Population

interest mean standard interest proportion variance
deviation
Interval Sample mean Sample Nominal Sample Sample

scales standard scales proportion of variance
deviation incidence(p) （ pq ）
q=1-p
Ratio Sample mean Sample Ordinal Sample Sample
scales standard scales proportion of variance
deviation incidence(p) （ pq ）
q=1-p
The mean is the simple mathematical average of a set of two or more numbers.
The standard deviation looks at the square root of the variance of the set of numbers.
The population proportion of incidence “is equal to the number of cases in the population
belonging to the category of interest, divided by the total number of cases in the population.
The Population variance tells us how data points in a specific population are spread out.
©McGraw Hill 5-17


Protocols
©McGraw Hill 5-18

Step 3 Define the Sample Frame
• The sampling frame is the list of List of elements in population
cases in the target population from
Complete and correct
which the sample is actually drawn.
• Ideally, it is a complete and correct list
Error rate increases over time
of population members only.
May include elements that

must be screened out
Representativeness of the sample frame: secure a
supplemental list of the new students and employees as
For the dining club study, the Metro U directory well as a list of the withdrawals and terminations from
Metro U’s registrar and human resources databases.
( 人名地址录 ) would be the logical first choice
as a sample frame. International frames
most problematic
Countries differ in how each define its population, different
sampling methodologies may used in different countries
©McGraw Hill 5-19
Problems with Sample Frame
People will have withdrawn or
Incomplete list left since the directory was
published
Out-of-date list More than one year old

directory
Too inclusive a list A branch campus population were

included in the Metro U directory
Too-inclusive frame—that is, a
frame that includes many cases
other than the ones in which we
are interested.
Inappropriate List City Directory
©McGraw Hill 5-20

Metro U Sample Frame
University directory?
Modify directory with student

enrollment additions?
Modify directory with student

enrollment deletions?
Registrar’s list?
Craft a list to include students,

faculty, administration & alumni in
area?
©McGraw Hill 5-21

Communities as Sample Frame
Engaged, loyal to company
Digitally literate individuals
Want to share ideas, concerns
Two types: private and public
Strength: fast, cheap answers
Emerging: Use in innovation
A community is a collection of digitally-literate individuals who want to

engage with each other and with a company to share ideas, concerns,
©McGraw Hill information, and assist decision making. 5-22
A community as a sample frame
 Drawing participants for research from a prerecruited virtual community is a common practice
 increase response rate,
 increase completion rate,

 speed data collection,
 lower the cost of research,
 gain deeper insights with its ability to combine both qualitative and quantitative methodologies.
 Judge the rigor of software used to draw samples from by the following sample characteristics
 Quality
 Repeated use controls
 Fraud prevention (sample units are who they claim they are)
 Replicability
 Parameters that define sample nits remain consistent over time (comparable sample over time)
 Control
 Size and diversity
 Sufficient participants meeting the desired parameters
©McGraw Hill 5-23

Define & Evaluate Sample

Frames

Protocols
©McGraw Hill 5-24

The Basic Idea Behind a Sample
The basic idea of sampling is that by selecting

some of the elements in a target population,
we may draw conclusions about the entire
population.
• A case: One child who eats a Fudgsicle®.
• A target population is all children who eat
Fudgsicles®.
• A census is a count of all children who eat
Fudgsicles®.
• A sample is a count of some children who
eat Fudgsicles®.
• A sample frame is the listing of all children
who eat Fudgsicles®.
Copyright © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 5-25
Census versus Sample
Census
Sample
A subset of the target population
All cases within a population

©McGraw Hill 5-26
When Is a Census Appropriate?
Feasible Necessary
(Small) (High Variability)
Snapshot: How to Avoid and Correct For Problem Participants
Noncompliers don’t follow directions well.

Noncompliers may also misinterpret
questions and activities.
Rush-throughs tend to speed; they

Straightliners (or flatliners) fail to give thoughtful answers to
also don’t give careful thought questions or be careful in executing
to their answers. activities.
Fake participants may be human

or nonhuman (e.g., bots in online
and mobile surveys).
frequent repeaters can participate in studies on similar

subjects too often and their knowledge can bias their
©McGraw Hill responses. 5-28
Why Use a Sample?
Better Quality
E.g. Car Crash test Results
When the population is infinite
©McGraw Hill 5-29

Sampling with better quality results
W. Edwards Deming who developed the sampling techniques used by U.S. Census Bureau
argues: the quality of a study is often better with a sample than with a census.
Error related to research Description

Sampling error Errors related to the sample itself.
Sampling error, or estimates of a
variable drawn from a sample differ
from true value of a population
parameter. This is called
sampling error ( 标准误 ) and
reflects the influence of
chance( 随机性 ) in drawing the
sample members.
Non-sampling error Error not related to the sample but
to all other decisions made in the
research design
©McGraw Hill 5-30

Exhibit 5-5: Sources of Error
Response error occurs when participants give inaccurate responses (guesses,

lies) or when true responses are inaccurately recorded or misanalyzed by
researchers.
Nonresponse error occurs when participants selected for a sample choose not to
participate. The true values from the desired sample (unknown) are assumed to be
different from the values collected from those who chose to participate.
©McGraw Hill 5-31

Standard deviation and standard error
The standard deviation (SD) measures the amount of variability, or dispersion,

from the individual data values to the mean.
The standard error (SE) of a statistic (usually an estimate of a parameter) is

the standard deviation of its sampling distribution or an estimate of that standard
deviation. If the statistic is the sample mean, it is called the standard error of the
mean (SEM).
The standard error of the mean (SEM) measures how far the sample mean
(average) of the data is likely to be from the true population mean.
©McGraw Hill 5-32

Normal distribution
©McGraw Hill 5-33

What Is a Valid Sample?
Validity of a sample depends
Accurate on two considerations: Precise
accuracy and precision.
Accuracy is the degree to which bias is Precision: a measure of how closely
absent from the sample. the sample estimate represents the
An accurate (unbiased) sample is one
population parameter on any variable
in which the underestimators offset the
overestimators.
of interest.
Systematic variance has been defined Precision is measured by the
as “the variation in measures due to standard error of estimate, a type of
some known or unknown influences that standard deviation measurement;
‘cause’ the scores to lean in one the smaller the standard error of
direction more than another.” estimate, the higher is the precision of
Increasing the sample size can the sample. The ideal sample
reduce systematic variance as a cause produces a small standard
of error. However, even the larger size
error of estimate.
won’t reduce error if the sample frame
from which you draw your cases is
Sampling error reflects the influence
biased. Example ： 1936 Presidential of chance in drawing the sample
Election Copyright
poll © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. cases. 5-34
What Is a Sufficiently Large Sample?
“In recent Gallup ‘Poll on polls,’ . . . When asked
about the scientific sampling foundation on which
polls are based . . . most said that a survey of 1,500
– 2,000 respondents—a larger than average sample
size for national polls—cannot represent the views
of all Americans.”
Frank Newport
The Gallup Poll editor in chief
The Gallup Organization
©McGraw Hill 5-35

Sample size: When to Use a Larger Sample? The greater the dispersion or
variance within the population, the
larger the sample must be to
provide estimation precision.
In statistics, the confidence level indicates

For example, a 60% “yes”
the probability, with which the estimation of
response with a margin of error
the location of a statistical parameter (e.g.
of 5% means that between
an arithmetic mean) in a sample survey is
55% and 65% of the general
also true for the population.
©McGraw Hill population think that the 5-36
Cost and sample size
Note the effect of a $2,000 budget on hypothetical sampling considerations
•Simple random sampling: $25 per interview; 80 completed interviews.
•Phone interviews: $10 per participant; 200 completed interviews.
•Self-administered questionnaire: $12 per participant; 167 completed instruments.
•Geographic cluster sampling: $20 per interview; 100 completed interviews.
©McGraw Hill 5-37


Frames

Protocols
©McGraw Hill 5-38

Exhibit 5-6: Types of Sampling Designs 2
Case Selection Representation Basis of Representation Basis of

Probability Nonprobability
Unrestricted Simple random Convenience

Restricted Complex random Purposive
• Systematic. • Judgment.
• Cluster. • Quota.
• Stratified. • Snowball.
• Double.
• Probability sampling is • Nonprobability
a controlled, randomized sampling is an arbitrary
procedure that assures and subjective sampling
that each population procedure where each
element is given a known, population element does
nonzero chance of not have a known,
selection. nonzero chance of being
included.
©McGraw Hill 5-39

Complex probability sampling
A more efficient sample in a statistical sense is one that provides a given
precision (standard error of the mean or proportion) with a smaller sample
size.
A sample that is economically more efficient is one that provides a desired

precision at a lower dollar cost.
The limitation of simple random sampling have led to the development of

alternative designs that are superior to the simple random design in statistical
and/or economic efficiency.
• Systematic sampling
• Stratified random sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Double sampling
©McGraw Hill 5-40

Simple Random
Advantages Disadvantages
 Easy to implement with • Requires list of population
random dialing elements.
Each population element
has an equal chance of • Time consuming.
being selected into the • Larger sample needed.
samples. The sample is
drawn using a random
• Produces larger errors.
number table or • High cost.
generator.
©McGraw Hill 5-41

4-41
Simple Random Sampling
 Also called random sampling 也称作 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

随机取样
 Simplest method of probability 1 37 75 10 49 98 66 03 86 34 80 98 44 22 22 45 83 53 86 23 51
2 50 91 56 41 52 82 98 11 57 96 27 10 27 16 35 34 47 01 36 08
sampling 概率抽样的最简单方法 3 99 14 23 50 21 01 03 25 79 07 80 54 55 41 12 15 15 03 68 56
4 70 72 01 00 33 25 19 16 23 58 03 78 47 43 77 88 15 02 55 67
5 18 46 06 49 47 32 58 08 75 29 63 66 89 09 22 35 97 74 30 80
6 65 76 34 11 33 60 95 03 53 72 06 78 28 14 51 78 76 45 26 45
7 83 76 95 25 70 60 13 32 52 11 87 38 49 01 82 84 99 02 64 00
8 58 90 07 84 20 98 57 93 36 65 10 71 83 93 42 46 34 61 44 01
9 54 74 67 11 15 78 21 96 43 14 11 22 74 17 02 54 51 78 76 76
10 56 81 92 73 40 07 20 05 26 63 57 86 48 51 59 15 46 09 75 64
需要使用
随机数表
Systematic sampling
Advantages
In drawing a sample with  Simple to design
systematic sampling, an  Easier than simple random
element of the population  Easy to determine sampling
distribution of mean or proportion
is selected at the
beginning with a Disadvantages
random start and then  Periodicity within population may
every Kth element is skew sample and results

 Restaurant sales by drawing days of the
selected until the year with a skip interval of 7
 Monotonic trends in list may bias
appropriate size is results
selected.  The population list varies from the
smallest to the largest case or vice versa.
E.g., chronological list
 Moderate cost
The kth case, or skip interval, is
determined by dividing the sample size
into the population size to obtain the skip
pattern applied to the sample frame.
©McGraw Hill 4-43
Number the units in the population from 1 to
N;
为总体中的单元编号，从 1 到 N ：
Decide
N=100 the n (sample size) you want or need;
根据需要为 n （样本数量）取值：希望 n=20
Calculate k=N/n=the interval size;

计算间隔大小 k = N/n : N/n=5
Randomly select an integer between 1 and k;

在 1 到 k 之间随机选择一个整数 :
选择随机整数
Copyright © 2020 UIC 1-
Take
5：选 every
4 kth unit.
获取每组第 k 个单元：
从 4 开始间隔选
第 5 个单元
©McGraw Hill 5-44

4-44
Stratified Sampling
Most populations can be segregated Advantages

into several mutually exclusive  Control of sample size in strata
subpopulations, or strata.
 Increased statistical efficiency
 Provides data to represent and
The process by which the sample is
constrained to include cases from analyze subgroups
each of the segments is called  Enables use of different methods
stratified random sampling. in strata
Disadvantages
After a population is divided into the  Increased error if subgroups are
appropriate strata, a simple random
sample can be taken within each
selected at different rates
stratum.  Especially expensive if strata on
The results from the study can then be population must be created
weighted (based on the proportion of  High cost
the strata to the population) and
combined into appropriate population
estimates.
©McGraw Hill 4-45
Types of stratified sampling
Proportionate stratified sampling Disproportionate stratified sampling

 Each stratum is proportionate to the  Any stratification that departs from
stratum’s share of the total the proportionate relationship is
population. disproportionate stratified sampling.
 •Has higher statistical efficiency  One type is a judgmentally
than a simple random sample. determined disproportion based on
 •Is much easier to carry out than other the idea that each stratum is large
stratifying methods. enough to secure adequate
 •Provides a self-weighting sample confidence levels and error range
estimates for individual strata.
The size of the strata samples is calculated with two pieces of information:
(1) how large the total sample should be and
(2) how the total sample should be allocated among strata. In deciding how to
allocate a total sample among various strata, there are proportionate and
disproportionate options.
Types of stratified sampling
©McGraw Hill 4-47

The process for stratified sampling
The process for drawing a stratified sample is
•Determine the variables to use for stratification.
•Determine the proportions of the stratification variables in the population.
•Select proportionate or disproportionate stratification based on project

information needs and risks.
•Divide the sample frame into separate frames for each stratum.
•Randomize the case listing within each stratum’s sample frame.
•Follow random or systematic procedures to draw the sample from each

stratum.
©McGraw Hill 5-48

Cluster sampling
In a simple random sample, each Disadvantages

population element is selected • Often lower statistical efficiency due
individually. to subgroups being homogeneous
rather than heterogeneous.
This is cluster sampling. The • Moderate cost.
population can also be divided into Advantages
groups of elements with some
• Provides an unbiased estimate of
groups randomly selected for
population parameters if properly
study. done.
Divide population into clusters • Economically more efficient than

simple random.
(usually along geographic
boundaries). • Lowest cost per sample.
• Easy to do without list.
©McGraw Hill 5-49

4-49
Comparison of Stratified and Cluster Sampling
Stratified Sampling Cluster Sampling

1. We divide the population into a few 1. We divide the population into many
subgroups. subgroups.
• Each subgroup has many cases • Each subgroup has few cases in it.
in it. • Subgroups are selected according to
some criterion of ease or availability
• Subgroups are selected in data collection.
according to some criterion that is
related to the variables under
study.
2. We try to secure homogeneity 2. We try to secure heterogeneity within
within subgroups. subgroups
3. We try to secure heterogeneity 3. We try to secure homogeneity between
between subgroups. subgroups.
4. We randomly choose cases from 4. We randomly choose several
within each subgroup. subgroups that we then typically study
in depth.
©McGraw Hill 5-50

4-50
Stratified and Cluster Sampling 1
Stratified Cluster
• Population divided into few • Population divided into many
subgroups. subgroups.
• Homogeneity within subgroups. • Heterogeneity within subgroups.
• Heterogeneity between • Homogeneity between subgroups.
subgroups. • Random choice of subgroups.
• Random choice of cases from
within each subgroup.
©McGraw Hill 5-51

4-51
Example : Cluster sampling
一个拥有 100 个会员的影视俱乐部需要一个拥有 20 个会员的样本进行研究

 第一步：将会员分到五个集群，每个集群 20 个会员
Cluster
No. English Mandarin Others
1 00, 22, 40, 64, 82 06, 35, 66 02, 42
01, 24, 43, 67, 85 07, 44, 68 12, 46
2 03, 26, 45, 69, 86 10, 47, 72 17, 52
04, 29, 48, 70, 89 13, 51, 77 18, 60
3 05, 30, 49, 71, 91 15, 53, 78 21, 65
08, 31, 50, 73, 93 19, 56, 80 23, 74
4 09, 32, 54, 75, 94 20, 58, 83 28, 84
11, 34, 55, 76, 96 25, 59, 87 38, 88
5 14, 36, 57, 79, 97 27, 61, 92 39, 90
16, 37, 63, 81, 99 33, 62, 98 41, 95
第二步：在 5 个集群中选择 1 个。假设集群 4 被选，那么它的所
有元素（如编号为 09, 11, 32, 34, 54, 55, 75, 76, 94, 96, 20, 25,
58, 59, 83, 87, 28, 38, 84, 88 的会员）都被选中
Cluster sampling-Area Sampling
Well defined political or

geographical boundaries
Low cost
Frequently used
A low-cost, frequently used method, the area cluster sample may use
geographic sample units (e.g., city blocks).
©McGraw Hill 5-53
Design cluster sample including area sample
How homogeneous are the resulting clusters?
Shall we seek equal-size or unequal-size clusters?
How large a cluster shall we take?
Shall we use a single-stage or multistage cluster?
How large a sample is needed?
©McGraw Hill 5-54

Double Sampling
• It may be more convenient or economical to Advantages

collect some information by sample and
then use this information as the basis for • May reduce costs if first stage
selecting a subsample for further study. results in enough data to stratify or
This procedure is called double sampling,
(also called sequential sampling or
cluster the population.
multiphase sampling) It is usually found Disadvantages
with stratified and/or cluster designs.
• Increased costs if discriminately
used.
©McGraw Hill 5-55

4-55
Exhibit 5-9: Comparison of Probability Sampling Designs 1
Type Description Advantages Disadvantages
Simple Random Each population case Easy to implement with Requires a listing of
has an equal chance of automatic dialing (random- population cases.
Cost: High being selected into the digit dialing) and with
sample. computerized voice Takes more time to
Use: Moderate response systems. implement.
Sample drawn using
random Number Uses larger sample
table/generator. sizes.
Produces larger errors.

Systematic Using a random start, Simple to design. Periodicity within the
selects a population case population may skew the
Cost: Moderate and following the Easier to use than the sample and results.
sampling skip interval simple random.
Use: Moderate selects every kth case. If the population list has
Easy to determine a monotonic trend, a
sampling distribution of biased estimate will
mean or proportion. result based on the start
point.
©McGraw Hill 5-56

Exhibit 5-9: Comparison of Probability Sampling Designs 2
Type Description Advantages Disadvantages

Stratified Divides population into Researcher controls sample Increased error will result if
Cost: High subpopulations or strata and size within strata. subgroups are selected at
Use: Moderate draws a simple random Increased statistical efficiency. different rates.
sample from each stratum. Provides data to represent and Especially expensive if
Results may be weighted and analyze subgroups. population strata must be
combined. created.
Enables use of different
methods in strata.
Cluster Population is divided into Provides an unbiased estimate Often lower statistical
Cost: Moderate internally heterogeneous of population parameters if efficiency (more error) due to
Use: High subgroups. Some subgroups properly done. subgroups being
are randomly selected for Economically more efficient homogeneous rather than
further study. than simple random. heterogeneous.
Lowest cost per sample,
especially with geographic
clusters.
Easy to do without a population
list.
Double Process includes collecting May reduce costs if first stage Increased costs if
(Sequential or data from any type sample. results in enough data to indiscriminately used.
multiphase) Based on the information stratify or cluster the
Cost: Moderate found, a subsample is population.
Use: Moderate selected for further study.
©McGraw Hill 5-57

Nonprobability Samples
With nonprobability sampling, there is a

greater opportunity for bias to enter the
©McGraw Hill
sample and distort findings.
5-58
Nonprobability Sampling Methods
Convenience sampling is
the least reliable design
Convenience but normally the cheapest
and easiest sample to
draw.
Judgment Judgment sampling occurs
when a researcher selects
Purposive sampling sample members to
conform to some criterion.
Quota
The logic behind quota
sampling is that certain
relevant characteristics
Snowball describe the dimensions of
the population.
Snowball sampling means
that subsequent participants
are referred by the current
©McGraw Hill
sample elements. 5-59
Examples of nonprobability sampling methods
Nonprobabil Description Example

ity sampling
Convenience the element selection is informal pools of friends and
based on ease of neighbors, a newspaper’s invitation
accessibility. for readers, TV reporter’s “person-
on-the-street” intercept interviews,
Judgment selects sample members Labor problem research: those with

to conform to some on-the-job discrimination
criterion experience
Quota certain relevant Metro U student body 55% female

characteristics describe and 45 percent male. The sampling
the dimensions of the quota would call for sampling
population. students at 55 to 45 percent ratio as
Precision control well.
Frequency control
Snowball subsequent participants Six Degrees of Separation
are referred by the Social network analysis to find the
current sample elements “core people”
Define Target Population &

Case

Frames
Define Selection &

Recruiting Protocols
©McGraw Hill 5-61

Define the selection and recruiting protocols
•How will the researcher select cases (from a sample

frame or without a sample frame)?
•How will each desired case/gatekeeper be contacted?
•How will the case/gatekeeper be convinced to

participate?
•What follow-up procedures will be used to guarantee the

case/gatekeeper completes the research?
©McGraw Hill 5-62

Ethical Issues
Getting informed consent to
participate from each
participant/gatekeeper is
critical.
Deception
Incentives
Quality
Researcher and participants

Researcher: use best
sample frame, follow
selection protocols
conscientiously.
Participants: truthfulness
©McGraw Hill 5-63
Key Terms 1
• Area sampling. • Nonsampling error.

• Case. • Population parameters.
• Census. • Population proportion of incidence.
• Cluster sampling. • Probability sampling.
• Community. • Proportionate stratified sampling.
• Convenience sample. • Quota sampling.
• Disproportionate stratified sampling. • Sample.
• Double sampling. • Sample frame.
• Judgment sampling. • Sample statistics.
• Nonprobability sampling. • Sampling.
• Nonresponse error.
©McGraw Hill 5-64

Key Terms 2
• Simple random sample.

• Skip interval.
• Snowball sampling.
• Stratified random sampling.
• Sampling error.
• Systematic sampling.
• Systematic variance.
• Target population.
©McGraw Hill 5-65

Chapter 5 2
S TA G E 2 : S A M P L I N G D E S I G N
Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
5-66
Metro U Random Samples of Preferred Lunch Times
©McGraw Hill Access the text alternative for slide images.

5-67
Effects on Standard Error of Mean of Increasing Precision
Reducing the Standard Deviation by 50% Quadrupling the Sample
s 0.74 0.8
x  x   0.234 x   0.16
n 10 25
0.37 0.8
x   0.117 x   0.08
10 100
where
 x  standard error of the mean
 x  standard deviation of the sample
n  sample size
Note: A 400 percent increase in sample size (from 25 to 100) would yield only a 200 percent
increase in precision (from 0.16 to 0.08). Researchers are often asked to increase precision,
but the question should be, at what cost? Each of those additional sample elements adds
both time and cost to the study.
©McGraw Hill 5-68

Confidence Levels and the Normal Curve

5-69
Standard Errors Associated with Areas Under the Normal
Curve
Approximate Degree
Standard Error (Z) Percent of Area* of Confidence
1.00 68.27 68%
1.65 90.10 90
1.96 95.00 95
3.00 99.73 99
*Includes both tails in a normal distribution.
©McGraw Hill 5-70

Metro U:
Comparison
of Population
Distribution,
Sample
Distribution,
& Distribution
of Sample
Means

5-71
Metro U: Estimates Associated with Various Confidence
Levels
Approximate Degree Interval Range of Dining Visits per

of Confidence Month
68% µ is between 9.48 and 10.52 visits
90% μ is between 9.14 and 10.86 visits
©McGraw Hill 5-72

Metro U: Sampling Design Decision of Meal Frequency and
Joining Constructs
Metro U Decisions
“Meal Frequency” “Joining” (nominal,
Sampling Issues (interval, ratio data) ordinal data)
1. The precision desired and how to quantify it: 95% confidence (Z = 1.96) 95% confidence (Z = 1.96)
• The confidence researcher wants in the estimate ±0.5 meal per month ±0.10 (10 percent)
(selected based on risk).
• The size of the interval estimate the researcher will
accept (based on risk).
2. The expected range in the population for the question 0 to 30 meals 0 to 100%
used to measure precision:
Measure of Central Tendency 10 30%
• Sample mean.
• Sample proportion of population with the given
attribute being measured.
4.1 pq = 0.30(0.70) = 0.21
Measure of Dispersion
• Standard deviation.
• Measure of sample dispersion.
3. Whether a finite population adjustment should be used. No No
4. Estimate of standard deviation of population: 0.5/1.96 = 0.255 0.10/1.96 = 0.051
• Standard error of mean.
• Standard error of the proportion.
5. Sample size calculation. See formula (p. 120) See formula (p. 121)
6. Calculated sample size. n = 259* n = 81
©McGraw Hill 5-73

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Research proposal (10 pages excluding references)

Pre Date: 12 April (Week 10, 8:00 – 10:00am):

• Not all members need to speak, 4-5 presenters would be ideal .

©McGraw Hill 5-2

“When you sample something, you're using the

Gerald Earl Gillum (G-Eazy),

©McGraw Hill 5-4

©McGraw Hill 5-5

©McGraw Hill 5-6

Define Sampling Method

Define Selection & Recruiting

Step 1: Define population and case/Unit of

Step 2: The population parameters of Interests:

Step 3: Define sample frame:

Time Response Permanent

©McGraw Hill 3-10

•People (individuals or groups: e.g., employees,

•Objects or artifacts (e.g., products, machines,

Research question: Would a membership dining club be a

Who would patronize the club?

How much would they spend?

What days would be most popular?

What menu and service formats?

How often would they use the club?

Who would join the club?

Define Target Population & Case

Define Population Parameters

Define & Evaluate Sample Frames

Define Number of Cases

Define Sampling Method

Define Selection & Recruiting

©McGraw Hill 5-13

 Population parameters are summary descriptors (e.g., incidence

 A different level of data will be collected depending on how measurement

©McGraw Hill 5-14

©McGraw Hill 5-15

©McGraw Hill 5-16

Variable of Population Population Variable of Population Population

Interval Sample mean Sample Nominal Sample Sample

©McGraw Hill 5-17

Define Target Population & Case

Define Population Parameters

Define & Evaluate Sample Frames

Define Number of Cases

Define Sampling Method

Define Selection & Recruiting

©McGraw Hill 5-18

May include elements that

Out-of-date list More than one year old

Too inclusive a list A branch campus population were

©McGraw Hill 5-20

Modify directory with student

Modify directory with student

Craft a list to include students,

©McGraw Hill 5-21

Engaged, loyal to company

Digitally literate individuals

Want to share ideas, concerns

Two types: private and public

Strength: fast, cheap answers

Emerging: Use in innovation

A community is a collection of digitally-literate individuals who want to

 increase completion rate,

©McGraw Hill 5-23