MOUNTAINEERING

INSTRUCTOR:
SAFETY CONSIDERATION
Learning Objectives
• Know the different aspects of jungle
operations.
• Know the different elements of the
Philippine climates as they affect military
operations.
• Know the different techniques in mountain
climbing.
• Appreciate the importance of knots in
mountaineering operations.
• Know how to tie the different knots.
• Know how to set up and perform the different
kinds of rappel.
• Know the different field expedients in crossing a
river.
The Philippine Jungle
• Dense vegetation characterized by rapid growth ,
dense concentration and a natural ability to
proliferate.
• Generally covered with shrubs, bushes, small trees
and ferns interlaced with vines.
• Dense growth of trees from the upper level of
swamps to the mountain crest.
• Neighborhood of rivers and
streams, has a lot of large, deep
and whitewater rivers which
instantly become raging wild ones
during the rainy season.
• Jungle weather is unpredictable,
clear weather suddenly changes into
brief and frequently violent torrential
rainfall which often causes floods in
slopes, low area and stream and
river banks.
Jungle Mountain Operations
▪ Jungle – an area located in the humid
tropics, wherein the land is covered with such
dense growth of trees or other types of
associated vegetation which impede military
operations and tends to obstruct lines of
communications.
▪ Mountain – a land-form higher than
500 or 600 meters and characterized
by slopes. Mountains may consist of an
isolated peak, single ridge or complex
of ranges, extending for several
kilometers.
Tactical Aspects of the Jungle
• a. Key Terrain

-The tactical advantage of high ground is

diminished due to limited observation and fields
of fire.
• - All features that expedite movement, resupply
and evacuation are considered key terrain.

• b. Observation and Fields of Fire

• - Obscured by trees, bushes, shrubs and

jungle canopy.
• - Fire tunnels
• c. Cover and Concealment

• - Excellent concealment, does not provide

excellent cover.
• - Most of the cover will be afforded not by the
vegetation but by the surface irregularities, such
as ravines and gullies, and large rock
• - Fallen logs
• d. Command and Control

• - Large units are difficult to control

due to the Commander’s lack of
observation of the major portion of the
troop file.
 Operational Limitations

1. Control is difficult and must be decentralized.

• 2. Frontages must be shortened and intervals

must be lessened.
• 3. Maintaining direction of movement is difficult.

• 4. Limits use of heavy equipment and support

weapons.

• 5. Limits use of armor and to some extent, artillery

fire.
 Advantages of the Guerrilla
• 1. Dominant terrain provides the defender and
denies the attacker observation and firing
position.

• 2. Slopes and vegetation serve as obstacles.

• 3. There are areas that are either
impassable or extremely difficult to
negotiate.

• 4. The attackers, us, have limited use of

other combat assets, such as armoured
vehicles.
Philippine Climate
• Four Climatic Patterns:

• Type 1: April and May are the hottest, while July and
August are the wettest. The two pronounced seasons are
November to April (dry) and May to October (wet). Included
in this pattern are Manila and Western Philippines, such as
Mindoro, Palawan, Panay and Negros.
Type 2: There is a very distinctive period
of maximum rainful from May to January.
This is the climate of Quezon, Bicol,
Samar, Leyte and down to Eastern
Mindanao.
Type 3: It is relatively dry from November to April
and the season are not very pronounced. This
type prevails in Central Philippines, Cebu and
Northern Mindanao.

Type 4: There is a marked uniform distribution of

rainfall - Central Mindanao’s climate.
Humidity
• warm and humid year-round, varies from
71 % in March to 85 % in September.
• wear loose clothing, made of light materials
for easy drying.
• Undershirt made of thin cotton
• Dark colored Bikini-type of briefs
Typhoons
Three-stage warning system to announce
the coming of typhoons:
a. Signal #1 - there is a possible threat of
typhoons within 72 hours.
 b. Signal #2 - coming of a typhoon within 48
hrs
c. Signal #3 - within 36 hrs.

causes flash floods due to soil erosion and

deforestation
Rain
• during the wettest periods, rains comes almost
everyday, particularly along the Pacific Coast.
• the western and central parts of the country
receive most of their rain from the southwest
monsoon and the eastern side gets its rain
from the northeast.
• in tropical rainforest, it could rain anytime,
make sure to waterproof your clothes and
other personal belongings.
• prior to jump-off, apply pomade to your
feet to protect it from water.
• don’t forget to bring along your slippers.
Heat
• General daytime temperature range from
30 to 36 degree centigrade and night time
temp go from 21 to 24 degrees centigrade.
• the annual mean temp is 26.7 degree
centigrade.
• the heat is unforgiving during dry
season, bring extra water containers.
• wear what is functional and
comfortable, don’t forget your tubao.
Mobility in the Jungle

• greatly hampered by the dense growth of

trees and thick undergrowth, the swamps
and unfordable rivers and streams with
slippery banks, soft and clay like soil which
becomes slippery when wet.
• extremely difficult to maintain direction of
movement in the jungle.
• often a tendency to overestimate the
distance you have traveled because of the
time and great efforts you have expended in
navigating a certain distance.
• it’s best to estimate the distance in
terms of time, rather than distance,
most of the natives in the jungles
also estimate distance in terms of
time.
Selection of Route
• Do not rely on maps, ask information from
returning patrols and from reliable/sympathetic
natives in the area.
• Aerial recon (if available) in the area is highly
encouraged.
Jungle Mud

• Your jungle adventure will see you

wading through soft, clinging mud
which can be up to your waist.
• Molasses-thick mud can easily tire you as
these stick and cling to your trousers. Avoid
passing thru quicksand, these can swallow
your team down if you are not careful.

• To conveniently negotiate these areas, it is

necessary that you tuck in all the unnecessary
flaps of your trousers.
Jungle Insects
• Learn to live with buzzing, creaking and
swarming insects.
• Of all the insects in the jungle, the
mosquitoes are the most irritating.
• If you are operating in areas such as Surigao,
Agusan, North and South Cotabato, Sultan
Kudarat, Maguindanao, Isabela and Samar, you
will find it convenient to bring mosquito nets.
• learn also to live with the tiny, stinging gnats
called neknek.
• As a word of caution, do not and never disturb
honeybees, they sting like a bullet
Mountain-Climbing
• Primary Considerations
• - conservation of troops
• - safety
• - secrecy of movement
• Tips in mountain climbing
• 1. Be as light as possible
• 2. Travel small.
• 3. Carry along a bolo or machete.
• 4. Store water when you can.
• 5. Use common sense.
• 6. Maintain a steady, rhythmic pace
decreasing in speed with increasing
steepness of slope.
• 7. On the ascent, do not tire yourself too
much.
Rock-Climbing

• When there is rockfall ( most common

mountaineering hazard), lean on the cliff
to reduce exposure and do not look up.
• Make use of natural anchors such
as rooted trees with sufficient
sizes, refrain from using artificial
anchors.
• Use the balance-climbing techniques as
follows:
A. Weight is centered over the feet.
B. Feet and legs carry the body’s weight.
C. Hands are mainly for balance.
D. As much boot sole as possible is in
contact with the rock.
E. Keep handholds low, between waist and
shoulder height. This position aids the desired
upright and balanced position, and gives
maximum rest to the arms.

F. Keep the body out and away from the rock to

counter the gravitational pull on the body.
G. Three points of contact with the rock must
be maintained.

H. Go for relaxed, slow and deliberate actions.

I. Plan route two or three steps ahead.

J. Use all available hand and footholds.
Avoid overstretching and, hence, ending
in a spread-eagle position.
4. In ascending, remember these:
A. If you face sideways, climbing is
easy to difficult.
B. If you face inward, climbing is
more difficult, very steep.
5. In descending remember these:

A. If you face out, climbing is very easy, not

steep.
B. If you face sideways, climbing is easy to
difficult.
C. If you face inward, climbing is more
difficult, very steep.
6. Holds need not be large to be safe. Plan
each move in advance, knowing exactly
where the hands and feet are going to be
placed. All hand and footholds are tested
before use by gradually applying weight.
7. Avoid hugging the rock.

8. Avoid using knees, buttocks and elbows.

9. Don’t jump and lunge to reach a hold.

10. Avoid wet rocks.

11. Avoid wearing gloves when climbing.

12. Remove jewelry from hands before climbing.

13. Stay within individual capabilities. Don’t attempt

a very, very steep cliff, if you are carrying too much
rations and very heavy loads of ammos.
Footholds
Descending
Position
KNOT-TYING
• The success of a unit operating in
mountainous terrain depends on its
ability to use a number of skills in
overcoming a great variety of
obstacles
Rope
• Intended to provide security for climber
and equipment in operations involving
steep ascents and descents.
• Ropes must be selected based on the
ff:
1. Impact force ( the jerk on the climber caused by a
fall) must be low.

2. Elasticity (stretch) must be considered.

3. Weight must be considered.

4. The tensile strengths and versatility of the rope must

also be considered.
Parts of
a Rope
Care of Ropes

• Inspect thoroughly before, during and after use

for cuts, excessive fraying, abrasions, mildew,
soft and worn spots.
• When wet, hand rope to drip dry at room temp.
• Don’t step on the rope or drag on the ground
unnecessarily.
Care of Ropes
• Avoid running ropes over sharp or rough
edges
• keep rope away from oil, acids, and other
corrosive materials
• Avoid rubbing ropes together under high
tension.
• Don’t leave rope knotted or tightly stretched
longer than necessary.

Knot - interlacement of the parts of one or more

flexible bodies, such as cordage rope, forming a
lump.
• it is also a tie or fastening formed with a
rope, including bends, hitches and slices.
• often used as a stopper to prevent a rope
from passing through an opening.
• a good knot must be easy to tie, must
hold without slipping and must be easy to
untie.
Classification of Knots:
1. Knots at the end of a rope.
2. Knots for joining two ropes.
3. Knots for making loops.
Knots at the End of the Rope
*Overhand knot
* Figure-eight knot
• Overhand knot
-to prevent the end of a rope from
untwisting, to form knob at the end of a
rope or to serve as a part of another knot.
• - reduces the strength of a rope by 55
percent
Figure-eight knot
- to form a larger knot by an overhand
knot.
- prevents the end of the rope from
slipping through a fastening or loop in
another rope.
- easy to untie.
Knots for Joining Two (2) Ropes
* Square-knot
* Single-sheet bend
* Double-sheet bend
Square-knot
- to tie two ropes of equal size together, so
they will not slip.
- the end and standing part of one rope
come out on the same side of the bight
formed by the outer rope.
- the square knot will not hold , if the ropes
are wet or if they are of different sizes.

- it tightens under strain but can be untied

by grasping the ends of the two bights and
pulling the knot apart.
NOTE: It makes no difference
whether the first crossing is tied left-
over-right or right-over-left as long as
the second crossing is tied opposite
to the first crossing.
Single-sheet bend
- sometimes called weaver’s knot, has two
major uses:
a. Tying together two ropes of unequal size.
b. Tying a rope to an eye.
 -fast and secure way of joining two ropes.
-do not use these knots for climbing, the
knot will draw tight but will loosen or slip when
the lines are slackened.
- stronger and unties easier than the
square knot.
Double-sheet bend
- an extra tuck in the sheet bend produces the
double-sheet bend.
- both knots will not slip even when the ropes
are wet.
- will draw tight under heavy loads, more
secure than the single-sheet bend
Knots for Making Loops
* Bowline
* Double bowline
* Running bowline
* Bowline on a bight
Bowline
- most common, used for lowering of
men and material
- traditional knot for tying on a rope
- it is the best knot for
forming a single loop
which will not tighten or
slop under strain and can
be untied easily if each
running end is seized to its
own standing part.
Double Bowline
- forms three non slipping
loops, use this knot to sling
a man.
- as he sits on the sling,
one loop supports his back
and the remaining two loops
supports his legs.
Running Bowline
- forms a strong running
loop
- use it when tying a
handline around an object
at a point you cannot safely
reach, such as the end of
the limb.
Bowline on a Bight
- forms two non slipping loops, the same purpose
as a boatswain’s chair.
- it does not leave both hands free, but it’s win
non-slipping loops form a comfortable seat.
- use it when you need to form a loop at some
point in a rope other than at the end.
- you do not have access to the end of a rope.
Knots for Tightening a Rope

* Butterfly Knot
- used for tying in the middle of a rope, where
the strain will come from both sides of the knot.
- using this knot provides the capability to tighten a
fixed rope when mechanical means are not
available.
- it will not jam when a stick is placed between
the two upper loops.
Hitches
- a hitch is any of the various knots used to
form a temporary noose in a rope or to secure a
rope around a timber, pipe or post, so that it will
hold temporarily and can be readily undone
Types of Hitches

•Half-Hitch - to tie a rope to a

timber or to a larger rope, it will
hold against a steady pull on the
standing part of the rope.
- is the foundation of many knots.
* Two Half-Hitch - useful for securing the running
end of a rope to the standing part
Sheepshank
- a method of shortening a rope, but you can use
it to take the load of a weak spot in the rope.
- a temporary knot unless the eyes are fastened
to the standing part of each end.
Clove Hitch
- used to fasten a rope to a piece of timber, pipe
or post.
- used to make other knots.
- this knot put very little strain on the fibers when
the rope is put around an object in one continuous
direction.
Round Turn and Two Half-Hitches
- This can be tied under load, although it is not as
strong as the fisherman’s bend.
- The two half-hitches should form a clove hitch
on the standing part of the rope.
- this hitch does not jam.
Timber Hitch
- used to move heavy timber or poles, excellent
for securing a piece of lumber or similar objects.
- the pressure of the coils, one over the other ,
holds the piece of timber, it will not slip but will
readily loosen when the strain is relieved.
Snaplinks
• metal devices used to attach a climbing rope to
protect anchor points, conducting rappels and
erecting rope installations for the movement of
the team and equipment in mountainous terrain.
• be sure you know the characteristics of the snap
link selected. Steel, aluminum or steel alloys.
• check gate for safety and proper locking. Check
the threads and locking nut on locking snaplinks.
• inspect before, during and after use for cracks,
burrs, grooves and defects. Remove rust with
steel brush.
• store in a dry place when not in use.
RAPPELLING
Selecting the proper rappel point, observe the ff:

a. Select proper rappel point, close to the edge, if

possible.
b.Test anchor for safety and retrievability of the
rope. If possible tie a secondary anchor point.
c. Remove loose rocks or other obstacles from the
rappel point, as well as along the rappel route or
lane.
d. Avoid running rope over sharp edges, pad the
edge, if necessary.
e. Ensure that the rope reaches the bottom or a
good unloading platform and further progress is
possible. Tie the two ends of the rope together at
the bottom of the rappel lane, if the length is
doubtful.
Belays
Observe the following procedures when involved in
all types of body belays:
a. Tie a safety line ( bowline around the waist with
an end-of-the-rope bowline with snaplink inserted)
and hook the snaplink into an anchor point.
b. Backfeed the climbing rope so it will run freely
through the brake hand to the climber.
c. Place the climbing rope through guide hand
around to brake hand; make sure rope will slide
freely.
d. Never allow braking hand to go forward of guide
hand when taking up rope, nor to release the grasp
of the climbing rope.
e. Anticipate the climbers needs.
f. Don’t allow excessive slack to accumulate
between the belayman and the climber.
g. Prepare for the climbers fall by keeping the
body braced and the head and eyes on the
climber in the direction of the pull. The guide
hand must be on the uphill side of the slope..
 Types of Rappelling Techniques

Hasty Rappel
• - when carrying light loads and the slope is not
as steep.
• - when there is a need for speed
Procedure:
A. Face sideways to anchor.
B. Place rappel rope across the back.
C. The hand nearest the anchor is the guide hand.
The downhill hand is the brake hand.
D. Descend sideways, full sole, body is almost
perpendicular to rock.
E. To stop, bring brake hand in front of body and
turn facing anchor point.
Sit-Hip Rappel
a)Stand on one side of the rope, so that the square
knot faces the anchor point.

b) Place doubled rope into snaplink. Pull an arms

length of slack between the snaplink and the anchor
point.
c) Make round turn around the soild shaft of the
snaplink(with the rope between anchor and the body).

d) Rappel rope held with brake hand to the rear in the

small of the back, guide hand on the rope with arm
extended,in front of the snaplink.
e) Legs straight, feet shoulder width apart; maintain
L-shaped body position with the legs parallel to the
ground and the back straight.

f) In a walk down-down rappel, the brake hand is

kept in the small of the back.Regulate descent by
the opening and closing your fist.
g) In a bounding rappel (always without
equipment)the brake hand is moved out to the rear
of the body during the descent.To brake,bend the
elbow and gradually grasp the rope, while
simultaneously moving the brake hand to the small
of the back.
Run Down Rappel
- used when going down a gradual incline, and you
expect an enemy down below.
- you only need one hand to run this type of rappel.
allows you to hold on to your rifle and keep it
pointed towards the suspected enemy psn.
- you release the rope when you want to go
down, pull the rope to your chest when you
want to break.
- don’t go too fast, you may not be able to
control your speed.
Piggy Back
- - used for carrying along casualties.
• To prepare- belay rope is tied around casualty’s
chest with a bowline,rappeller hooks-up for sit-hip
rappel.
• To lash the casualty – casualty straddles
rappeller’s bac
-end of the rope is placed on the rappeller’s guide hand
hip & passed under the casualty’s buttocks around to
the front of the rappller& run diagonally across his chest
over his guide-hand shoulder, under the patient’s
armpit& horizontally across his back, under the armpit,
over the rappeller’s shoulder & run diagonally across
the rappeller’s chest to his guide hand hip. Tie the two
ends together with a square knot & two-half hitches.
The evacuation procedure – the rappeller’s
braking hand goes over the casualty’s leg with a
rope passing under the casualty’s leg. Rappeller
backs over the edge and execute a nomal sit-hip
rappel. The belayman regulates the descent by
providing slack or braking, as required.
Bowline on a Coil
- This is used by climbers when harnesses are not
available.
- Prepare the running end of the rope.
- Make a loop followed by a Half-hitch
- Make 3 rnd turns over the loop.
- Insert the standing end to the loop.
- Pull both ends.
Heli Rappel

• The rappeller is hooked-up while he sits on the

platform just above the helicopter skid
• on the rappell master’s command “Get Ready”,
the rappeller looks over the edge of the tower to
ensure the running ends of the ropes are on the
ground.
• On the command “Sit in the Door”, the rappeller
rotates his feet & legs of the platform & places
them on the skid.
• on the command ”Position”, the rappeller turns
around and assumes an L-shaped psn.
• On the command “Go”, the rappeller bounds
away from the helicopter skid and rappels to the
ground.
River Crossing
- determine if the river is fordable or not
- a simple map scan cannot pinpoint which
among the rivers you can negotiate, without having
to use a rope bridge
Making a One-Rope Bridge
1. Ask for a volunteer to swim across the opposite
bank.
2. You are in charge of the near bank, then make
two round turns, with two half -hitches and anchor
knots
3. Then make a butterfly and get a snaplink, and put
it into the loop
4. Get a stick and insert it, make one turn over the
post, and insert it inside the snaplink.
5. Start the tensioning process, have men pull the
rope to tighten.
6. When satisfied with the tightening of the rope,
fasten it by making two round turns and two half-
hitches. This should lock the anchor
Improvised Flotation Devices

- Philippine rivers are treacherous

- Before crossing a deep river, the first thing to
ask yourself is:
 A. Is there any threat of a sudden inundation of
the river?
B. Has it been raining?
C. Is there a great likelihood it has been raining
in the upland where the river flows from?
1.Bamboos
2. Logs
Friendly Reminder:
3. Coconuts
Swim with the
4. Empty Containers
current
5. Trousers
6. Poncho
7. Airtight Bags
8. Bananas
Bamboo Raft

Friendly Reminder:
Swim with the current
 Banana Raft
Friendly Reminder:
Swim with the current
Coconut Raft

Friendly Reminder:
Swim with the current
 Pack Raft

Friendly Reminder:
Swim with the current
SAFETY FIRST