Unit 1: Introduction to Physiology

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 Specific Objective:At the end of the
lesson students SBAT;

1) Define Physiology
2) Describe brief history of physiology
3) Define Homeostasis
4) Describe main components of homeostatic
regulation.
5) Explain the feedback mechanism pathways .

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 What is Physiology?
• Physiology is the science of studying the functional
activities and its mechanisms in biological body.
• For example: why does the heart automatically
• beat?
Physiology derived from two Greek words –
physis = nature;
logos = study

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 The History of Physiology
• Aristotle emphasized the relationship between structure
and function
• Galen was the first to perform experiments to understand
the function of the body; so known to be father of
physiology
• The first “physiologist” of the world, in the modern sense,
was William Harvey. In the 17th century William Harvey first
describes the circulatory system and its interaction with the
body
• Claude Bernard (1813-1878) propounded the concept of
milieu interieur or internal environment and
established physiology as the scientific basis of
• medicine.
THE FATHER OF MODERN
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 Field of Physiology
• Physiology can be divided into viral physiology,
bacterial physiology, cellular physiology, plant
physiology, human physiology, and many more
subdivisions.
• Human physiology is the science of studying the
rule of physiological functions in human body.

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 Function and Process:
Teleological vs. Mechanistic Approach to Science

Teleological:
•What is purpose or function?
•Why does something exist?
•Why does it need to be done?

Mechanistic:
•What are processes involved?
•How does something work?

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Distinguish between Process & Function
Process Function

• How do we breathe? • Why do we breathe?

• How does blood flow? • Why does blood flow?

• How do RBCs • Why do RBC transport

transport O2?
O2?

Integrate both for complete picture!

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 Levels of Structural Organization

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 HOMEOSTASIS

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 Levels of organization in the body

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• The cell is the basic unit of both structure and
function in a living being and is the smallest
unit capable of carrying out the processes
associated with life
• The tissues are group of cells of similar
specialization
• An organ is unit made up of several tissue
types
• A body system is a collection of related
organs
• The body systems are packaged together into
a functional whole body(Organism)
• Organisms are independent living entities
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 WHAT IS HOMEOSTASIS?
DEF: Homeostasis is the maintenance of steady
states in the body by coordinated physiologic
mechanisms.(by Walter .B.Cannon)
Homeostasis is the maintenance of nearly
constant conditions in the internal environment.
(Guyton textbook,11TH ED)

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 HOMEOSTASIS
Homeo means “same”
Stasis means to “stand or stay”

 Maintenance of a relatively stable internal

environment or body’s coordinated response
in order to maintain internal stability

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 Homeostasis
Homeostasis homeo-, the
same) is the existence and
maintenance of a relatively
constant environment
within the body despite
fluctuations in either the
external environment or
the internal environment.

Walter Cannon coined the

term "homeostasis" (1929)

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 HOMEOSTASIS CONTINUATION
Understanding the concept of homeostasis is important for
understanding and analyzing normal and pathologic
conditions in the body.
To function optimally under a variety of conditions, the body
must sense departures from normal and then be able to
activate mechanisms for restoring physiologic conditions to
normal.
Deviations from normal conditions may vary between too
high and too low, mechanisms exist for opposing changes in
either direction. For example, if blood glucose concentration
is too low OR too high,low OR high blood pressure.

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 HOMEOSTASIS CONTINUATION…….

Maintaining a stable internal environment

requires constant monitoring and adjustments as
conditions change.

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 Homeostatic Regulation
This process of adjustment (called homeostatic
regulation) involves:
1.a receptor (which receives information about a change
in the environment),
2.a control center (which receives and processes
information from the receptor), and
3.an effector (which responds to signals from the control
center by either opposing or enhancing the stimulus).
4. Receptor
5. Afferent Pathway
6. Integrating or control center
7. Efferent Pathway
8. Effector
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 Factors homeostatically regulated
1. Concentration of nutrient molecules
2. Concentration of CO2 andO2
3. Concentration of waste products
4. pH
5. Concentration of water , salt and other
electrolytes
6. Temperature
7. Volume and pressure

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 Interdependent relationship of cells,
systems and homeostasis

• Pp12 fig 1-5 sherwood

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 Contribution of body systems to
Homeostasis
• The Circulatory System
• The Digestive System
• The Respiratory System
• The Urinary System
• The Skeletal System
• The Muscular System
• The Integumentary System
• The Immune System
• The Nervous System
• The Endocrine System
• Reproductive system is not essential for homeostasis and
therefore not essential for survival.
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 Regulation of body functions by the
major systems

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 The major
systems
Cardiovascular system
Transportation
O2, CO2, nutrients, waste products, hormones etc
Digestive system
Digestion, Absorption of nutrients, excretion of wastes
Transfer of materials from external environment to internal
environment
Respiratory System :
Supply O2 of & elimination of CO2
Acid base balance

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 The major
systems
Urinary System
Elimination of waste products
Water & electrolytes balance
Acid base balance
Blood pressure regulation
Skeletal system
Support & protection
Movement
Reservoir for calcium

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 The major
systems
Muscular system
Movements towards or away from different elements
Most of the voluntary movements by skeletal muscles
Integumentary system
Protection
Temperature regulation
Immune System
Defense against foreign invaders
Defense against Cancer

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 The
Nervous System
major systems
Control system of the body
Coordination of body activities
Quick response to stimuli
Consciousness, memory and intellectual functions
Endocrine System
Another major control system
Control of metabolism
Control of nutrients supply, storage and utilization
Reproductive system
Reproduction – continuation of life

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 Homeostatic Control System
Is a functionally interconnected network of body
components that operate to maintain a given physical
or chemical factor in the internal environment
relatively constant around an optimal level.

Can be classified as:

• Intrinsic (local controls) are inherent compensatory

responses of an organ to a change
• Extrinsic controls are responses of an organ that are
triggered by factors external to the organ , namely, by
the nervous and endocrine systems

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 Both intrinsic and extrinsic control systems
generally operate on the principle of
Negative feedback mechanism
In addition
Positive feedback
mechanism Feedforward
mechanism

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 Negative feedback mechanism
Change in a homeostatically control factor
triggers a response that seeks to restore the
factor to normal by moving the factor in the
opposite direction of its initial change or it is a
pathway where the response opposes or
removes the signal.

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 Homeostasis Using a Neural
Pathway
Many homeostatic
mechanisms use
nerve pathway in which
a
to produce their
effects. These
Control center pathways involve an
afferent path which
brings sensory
messages into the
brain and an efferent
path which carries
outgoing nerve
messages to effectors.
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Negative Feedback – Temp Regulation
Regulator center

Effector

Effector

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Negative Feedback – Temp Regulation
1.Thermoreceptors in the skin send a message to
the hypothalamus
2.Hypothalamus response:
– Vasoconstriction: Constricts smooth muscle of
arterioles – blood flow is limited, heat loss from skin
is reduced
– Piloerection: Constricts smooth muscle around hair
follicles, causing hair to stand on end – erect hair
traps warm air next to skin
– shivering : Skeletal muscles to initiate rhythmic
contractions (10 – 20x per minute)

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Negative Feedback – Temp Regulation

Effector

Regulator center

Effector
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 Homeostatic Regulation of Blood Sugar through
Negative Feedback

Hyperglycemia Pancreas-beta cells Insulin is released

into blood
Stress Sensor and Control center

Stress is reduced
ng down
shuttihanism
mec

Liver and Muscle cells

Blood glucose
is reduced take up glucose from
the blood

Effectors

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 Negative Feedback Via a Hormonal Pathway
Regulation of Blood Sugar
Hormones play an important role in many homeostatic pathways.
Hormones are produced by endocrine glands. They enter the
blood after being produced and travel throughout the body.
However, hormones have their effect on specific target tissues.

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 Negative Feedback

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 Negative Feedback
Increased arterial pressure

Baroreceptors(sensor)

Inhibit vasomotor center in medulla

Decreased impulses to heart &blood vessels

Decreased pumping activity of heart and V.D

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Decreased blood pressure
Negative Feedback Control of Arterial
Pressure Promotes Stability

Art. Pressure Sympathetic

Activity

Heart Rate
Vasoconstriction

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 Baroreceptor Reflex :
Negative Feedback System - Promotes Stability

Set-point
Error signal
+ Effectors
Vasomotor Sympathetic Blood vessels,
Centers System Heart

Controlled
Sensor Variable
Blood
Baroreceptors
Pressure
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 Negative Feedback
Increased CO2 in tissue fluid

Excites respiratory center

Increased rate of breathing

More CO2 is expired

Decreased CO2 in tissue fluid

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 Positive Feedback
The output is continually enhanced or
amplified so that the controlled variable
continues to be moved in the direction of the
initial change or a pathway in which the
response reinforces the stimulus.

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 Positive Feedback

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 Positive Feedback
Blood vessel ruptured

Clotting factors activated in clot itself

Activated clotting factors activate inactivated

clotting factors as an enzyme

Clot formed and bleeding stopped

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 Feedback in
Coagulation

Positive feedback “mini-loops” are built into pathway to speed up

production of chemicals needed to form the clot. Entire sequence of
clotting is a negative feedback pathway:

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 Positive Feedback
Onset of labour

Oxytocin released from hypothalmus

Increased uterine contractions

Baby’s head pushed through cervix

Stretch of cervix

More oxytocin released

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Increased uterine contractions
 Positive Feedback during childbirth

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 Harmful Effects of Positive Feedback

Positive feedback can be harmful. Two specific

examples of these harmful outcomes would be:
1. Fever can cause a positive feedback within homeostasis
that pushes the body temperature continually higher.
If the temperature reaches 45 degrees centigrade
cellular proteins denature bringing metabolism to a
stop and death.
2. Chronic hypertension can favor the process of
atherosclerosis which causes the openings of blood vessels
to narrow. This, in turn, will intensify the
hypertension bring on more damage to the walls of blood
vessels.
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 Negative and Positive Feedback

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 Feedforward Mechanism
It brings about a compensatory response in
anticipation of a change in a regulated
variable.

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 Cardiopulmonary Reflexes:
Feed-Forward Control of Blood Pressure –
Anticipates a Change

Cardiopulmonary Cardiopulmonary
Receptors Pressures
Set-point
+ Error signal Effectors
Vasomotor Sympathetic Blood vessels,
Centers System Heart
Controlled
Sensor Variable
Blood
Baroreceptors
Pressure
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 Pathophysiology
Failure of homeostasis Disruption of Homeostasis

Disease Death

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 THE END THANKS

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