CHAPTER 10

Geometry

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 10.7
Beyond Euclidean Geometry

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 Objective

1. Gain an understanding of some of the general

ideas of other kinds of geometries.

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 The Geometry of Graphs
(Graph Theory)

The Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707 –

1783) proved that it was not possible to stroll through
the city of Kőnigsberg, Germany by crossing each of 7
bridges exactly once.

His solution opened up a new kind of geometry called

graph theory.

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 Graph Definitions
Vertex is a point.

Edge is a line segment or curve that starts and ends at a

vertex.

Graph consists of vertices and edges

Odd vertex has an odd number of attached edges.

Even vertex has an even number of attached edges.

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 Rules of Traversability

A graph is traversable if it can be traced without

lifting the pencil from the paper and without tracing
an edge more than once.

1. A graph with all even vertices is traversable. One can

start at any vertex and end where one began.
2. A graph with two odd vertices is traversable. One
must start at either of the odd vertices and finish at
the other.
3. A graph with more than two odd vertices is not
traversable.
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 Example: To Traverse or Not to
Traverse?
a. Is this graph traversable?
Solution
Begin by determining if each vertex is
even or odd.
This graph has two odd vertices, by
Euler’s second rule, it is traversable.
b. Describe the path to traverse it.
Solution
By Euler’s second rule, start at one of
the odd vertices and finish at the other.

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 Topology
The Study of Shapes
Objects are classified according to the number of holes
in them, called their genus.
Genus is the number of cuts that can be made in the
object without cutting the object in two pieces.
Topologically Equivalent objects have the same genus.
The topology of knots is used to identify viruses and
how they invade our cells.

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 Examples of Topological Equivalency

The three shapes below have the same genus: 0. No

complete cuts can be made without cutting these
objects into two pieces.

A doughnut and a coffee cup have a genus of 1.

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 Klein Bottle
The figures below show the transformation into the
figure called the Klein bottle. Because the inside
surface loops back on itself to merge with the outside, it
has neither an outside nor an inside. It passes through
itself without the existence of a hole, which is
impossible in three-dimensional space. It only exists
when generated on a computer.

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 Comparing the Three Systems of Geometry
(Euclidean and non-Euclidean)

Euclidean Geometry Hyperbolic Geometry Elliptic Geometry

Euclid (300 B.C.)
Given a point not on a
line, there is one and
only one line through
the point parallel to
the given line.
Geometry is on a
plane:
Lobachevsky, Bolyai (1830) Riemann(1850)
Given a point not on a line, There are no parallel
there are an infinite number of lines.
lines through the point that do
not intersect the given line.
Geometry is on a pseudosphere: Geometry is on a
sphere:

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 Comparing the Three Systems of Geometry
(Euclidean and non-Euclidean) continued

Euclidean Geometry Hyperbolic Geometry Elliptic Geometry

Euclid (300 B.C.)
The sum of the
measures of the angles
of a triangle is 180.
Lobachevsky, Bolyai (1830) Riemann(1850)
The sum of the measures of The sum of the
the angles of a triangle is measures of the
less than 180. angles of a triangle
is greater than 180.

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 Fractal Geometry

Developed by Benoit Mandelbrot

using computer programming.
Geometry of natural shapes.
Self-similarity is the quality of
smaller versions of an object
appearing in the object itself.
Iteration is the process of
repeating a rule again and again to
create a self-similar fractal.

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