Quantum Confinement

Quantum Confinement: Overview

• History: In 1970 Esaki & Tsu proposed fabrication of
an artificial structure, which would consist of
alternating layers of 2 different semiconductors with
Layer Thickness
 1 nm = 10 Å = 10-9 m  SUPERLATTICE
• PHYSICS: The main idea was that introduction of
an artificial periodicity will “fold” the Brillouin
Zones into smaller BZ’s  “mini-zones”.
 The idea was that this would raise the
conduction band minima, which was needed
for some device applications.
• Modern growth techniques (starting in the
1980’s), especially MBE & MOCVD, make
fabrication of such structures possible!
• For the same reason, it is also possible to
fabricate many other kinds of artificial
structures on the scale of nm (nanometers) 
“Nanostructures”
Superlattices = “2 dimensional” structures
Quantum Wells = “2 dimensional” structures
Quantum Wires = “1 dimensional” structures
Quantum Dots = “0 dimensional” structures!!
 Superlattices = “2 dimensional” structures
Quantum Wells = “2 dimensional” structures
Quantum Wires = “1 dimensional” structures
Quantum Dots = “0 dimensional” structures!!
•Clearly, it is not only the electronic properties of
materials which can be drastically altered in this way.
•Also, vibrational properties (phonons).
•Here, only electronic properties & only an overview!
•For many years, quantum confinement has been a
fast growing field in both theory & experiment! It
is at the forefront of current research!
•Note that I am not an expert on it!
 Quantum Confinement: Overview
1. Thin Films & Quantum Wells
• Electrons are Confined in 1 Direction:
 They can easily have
Motion in 2 Dimensions!
 There is 1 Dimensional Quantization!

ky

kx

nz
 2. Quantum Wires
• Electrons are Confined in 2 Directions:
 They can easily have
Motion in 1 Dimension!
 There is 2 Dimensional Quantization!
ny

kx

nz
 3. Quantum Dots
• Electrons are Confined in 3 Directions:
 They can easily have
Motion in 0 Dimensions!
 There is 3 Dimensional Quantization!
nz Each further confinement direction
changes a continuous k
nx
component to a discrete
ny
component
characterized by
a quantum number n.
• PHYSICS: Back to the bandstructure chapter:
• Consider the 1st Brillouin Zone for the infinite crystal.
The maximum wavevectors are of the order
km  (/a)
• a = lattice constant. The potential V is periodic with
period a. In the almost free e- approximation, the bands
are free e- like except near the Brillouin Zone edge.
That is, they are of the form:
E  (k)2/(2mo)
• So, the energy at the Brillouin Zone edge has the form:
Em  (km)2/(2mo)
Or
Em  () /(2moa2)
2
 PHYSICS
• SUPERLATTICES  Alternating layers of material.
Periodic, with periodicity L (layer thickness). Let kz
= wavevector perpendicular to the layers.
• In a superlattice, the potential V has a new periodicity in
the z direction with periodicity L >> a
 In the z direction, the Brillouin Zone is much smaller
than that for an infinite crystal. The max. wavevectors
are of the order: ks  (/L)
 At the BZ edge in the z direction, the energy has the form:
Es  ()2/(2moL2) + E2(k)
E2(k) = the 2 dimensional energy for k in the x,y plane.
Note that: ()2/(2moL2) << ()2/(2moa2)
 Primary Qualitative Effects of Quantum Confinement
• Consider electrons confined along 1 direction (say, z) to a
layer of width L:
Energies
• The energy bands are quantized (instead of continuous) in kz
& shifted upward. So kz is quantized:
kz = kn = [(n)/L], n = 1, 2, 3
• So, in the effective mass approximation (m*), the bottom of the
conduction band is quantized (like a particle in a 1 d box) &
shifted:
En = (n)2/(2m*L2)
• Energies are quantized! Also, the wavefunctions are 2
dimensional Bloch functions (traveling waves) for k in
the x,y plane & standing waves in the z direction.
 Quantum Confinement Terminology
Quantum Well  QW
= A single layer of material A (layer thickness L), sandwiched between 2
macroscopically large layers of material B. Usually, the bandgaps
satisfy:
EgA < EgB
Multiple Quantum Well  MQW
= Alternating layers of materials A (thickness L) & B
(thickness L).
In this case: L >> L
So, the e- & e+ in one A layer are independent of those in other A layers.
Superlattice  SL
= Alternating layers of materials A & B with similar
layer thicknesses.
Brief Elementary Quantum Mechanics &
Solid State Physics Review
• Quantum Mechanics of a Free Electron:
– The energies are continuous: E = (k)2/(2mo) (1d, 2d, or 3d)
– The wavefunctions are traveling waves:
ψk(x) = A eikx (1d) ψk(r) = A eikr (2d or 3d)
• Solid State Physics: Quantum Mechanics of an Electron in a Periodic Potential
in an infinite crystal :
– The energy bands are (approximately) continuous: E= Enk
– At the bottom of the conduction band or the top of the valence band, in the effective mass
approximation, the bands can be written:
Enk  (k)2/(2m*)
– The wavefunctions are Bloch Functions = traveling waves:
Ψnk(r) = eikr unk(r); unk(r) = unk(r+R)
 Some Basic Physics
• Density of states (DoS)
dN dN dk
DoS  
dE dk dE
in 3D:
k space vol
N (k ) 
vol per state
4 3 k 3

(2 )3 V

Structure Degree of dN
Confinement dE
Bulk Material 0D E
Quantum Well 1D 1
Quantum Wire 2D 1/ E
Quantum Dot 3D d(E)
 QM Review: The 1d (infinite) Potential Well
(“particle in a box”) In all QM texts!!
• We want to solve the Schrödinger Equation for:
x < 0, V  ; 0 < x < L, V = 0; x > L, V 
 -[2/(2mo)](d2 ψ/dx2) = Eψ
• Boundary Conditions:
ψ = 0 at x = 0 & x = L (V  there)
• Energies:
En = (n)2/(2moL2), n = 1,2,3
Wavefunctions:
ψn(x) = (2/L)½sin(nx/L) (a standing wave!)
Qualitative Effects of Quantum Confinement:
Energies are quantized & ψ changes from a traveling
wave to a standing wave.
 In 3Dimensions…
• For the 3D infinite potential well:
 ( x, y, z ) ~ sin( nLxx ) sin( mLyy ) sin( qLzz ), n, m, q  integer
n2h2 m2h2 q2h2
Energy levels    8 mL 2
R

8 mLx 2 8 mLy 2
Real Quantum Structures aren’t this simple!!
z

• In Superlattices & Quantum Wells, the potential barrier is obviously not

infinite!
• In Quantum Dots, there is usually ~ spherical confinement, not
rectangular.
• The simple problem only considers a single electron. But, in real
structures, there are many electrons & also holes!
• Also, there is often an effective mass mismatch at the boundaries. That is the
boundary conditions we’ve used are too simple!
QM Review: The 1d (finite) Rectangular Potential Well
In most QM texts!! Analogous to a Quantum Well
• We want to solve the Schrödinger Equation for:

We want bound
states: ε < Vo

[-{ħ2/(2mo)}(d2/dx2) + V]ψ = εψ (ε  E)
V = 0, -(b/2) < x < (b/2); V = Vo otherwise
 Solve the Schrödinger Equation:
[-{ħ2/(2mo)}(d2/dx2) + V]ψ = εψ
-(½)b (½)b
(ε  E) V = 0, -(b/2) < x < (b/2)
V = Vo otherwise
Bound states are in Region II
Vo
Region II: V= 0
ψ(x) is oscillatory

Regions I & III:

ψ(x) is decaying
 The 1d (finite) rectangular potential well
A brief math summary!
Define: α2  (2moε)/(ħ2); β2  [2mo(ε - Vo)]/(ħ2)
The Schrödinger Equation becomes:
(d2/dx2) ψ + α2ψ = 0, -(½)b < x < (½)b
(d2/dx2) ψ - β2ψ = 0, otherwise.
 Solutions:
ψ = C exp(iαx) + D exp(-iαx), -(½)b < x < (½)b
ψ = A exp(βx), x < -(½)b
ψ = A exp(-βx), x > (½)b
Boundary Conditions:
 ψ & dψ/dx are continuous SO:
• Algebra (2 pages!) leads to:
(ε/Vo) = (ħ2α2)/(2moVo)
ε, α, β are related to each other by transcendental equations. For
example:
tan(αb) = (2αβ)/(α 2- β2)
• Solve graphically or numerically.

• Get: Discrete Energy Levels in the well

(a finite number of finite well levels!)
• Even eigenfunction solutions (a finite number):
Circle, ξ2 + η2 = ρ2, crosses η = ξ tan(ξ)
Vo

b
• Odd eigenfunction solutions:
Circle, ξ2 + η2 = ρ2, crosses η = -ξ cot(ξ)

Vo b o

b
|E2| < |E1|
 Quantum Confinement in Nanostructures

Confined in:

1 Direction: Quantum well (thin film)

Two-dimensional electrons ky
kx

nz

2 Directions: Quantum wire ny

kx
One-dimensional electrons
nz

nz

3 Directions: Quantum dot nx

ny
Zero-dimensional electrons
 Quantization in a Thin Crystal
E

An energy band with continuous k is

quantized into N discrete points kn in a
thin film with N atomic layers.

Electron
Scattering

EVacuum
Inverse
Photoemission
EFermi
Photoemission

0 /d k /a d
= zone
boundary

N atomic layers with the spacing a = d/n n = 2d / n

N quantized states with kn ≈ n  /d ( n = 1,…,N ) kn = 2 / n = n  /d

 Quantization in Thin Graphite Films
E

Lect. 7b,
Slide 11
1 layer =
graphene

2 layers

EVacuum

EFermi 3 layers
Photoemission

0 /d k /a
4 layers
 layers =
N atomic layers with spacing a = d/n : graphite
 N quantized states with kn ≈ N  /d
 Quantum Well States
in Thin Films

becoming
continuous
for N  

discrete for
small N

Paggel et al.
Science 283, 1709 (1999)
 n
Counting Quantum Well States
4 3

(0a)12345
Q
u
an
tu
m
W
elS
taesfo
rA
g
/F
e(10)
Periodic Fermi level
 (eV)
hAg/Fe(100) (N, n')
(2, 1)
crossing of quantum well
13 N
15 (3, 1) states with increasing
11.5 0.3 (7, 2) thickness
14 (12, 3)

6
14 13 (13, 3)

1
13 2
12

7
14 11

Binding Energy (eV)

14 n

8
10
16

2(b
9 0.2
its)

V)

13
th(e
.un

)
8
rb

eWid
sity(a

16
in

7
L
ten

16 1
issionIn

4.
16
toem

5
Pho

14
4
16 0.1
3
16
2
Number of monolayers N
10
1
tion (eV)

2 1 0 100 200 300

Binding Energy (eV) Temperature (K)
 Quantum Well Oscillations in Electron Interferometers

Fabry-Perot interferometer model: Interfaces act like mirrors for electrons. Since electrons
have so short wavelengths, the interfaces need to be atomically precise.

n
6
5
4
3
2
1

Himpsel Kawakami et al.

Science 283, 1655 (1999) Nature 398, 132 (1999)
 The Important Electrons in a Metal

Energy  EFermi

Energy Spread  3.5 kBT

Transport (conductivity, magnetoresistance, screening length, ...)

Width of the Fermi function:
FWHM  3.5 kBT

Phase transitions (superconductivity, magnetism, ...)

Superconducting gap:
Eg  3.5 kBTc (Tc= critical temperature)
 Energy Bands of Ferromagnets

Calculation Photoemission data

4
Ni

Energy Relative to EF [eV]

2

-2
0.7 0.9 1.1
k|| along [011] [Å-1 ]

-4

-6
States near the Fermi level cause the
energy splitting between majority and
-8
minority spin bands in a ferromagnet
-10
(red and green).
 K X
 Quantum Well States and Magnetic Coupling
The magnetic coupling between layers plays a key role in giant magnetoresistance (GMR), the
Nobel prize winning technology used for reading heads of hard disks. This coupling oscillates
in sync with the density of states at the Fermi level.

(Qiu, et al.
PR B ‘92)
 Spin-Polarized Quantum Well States

Magnetic interfaces reflect the two spins differently, causing a spin polarization.

Minority spins discrete,

Majority spins continuous
 Giant Magnetoresistance and Spin - Dependent Scattering

Parallel Spin Filters  Resistance Low

Opposing Spin Filters  Resistance High

Filtering mechanisms
• Interface: Spin-dependent Reflectivity  Quantum Well States
• Bulk: Spin-dependent Mean Free Path  Magnetic “Doping”
 Magnetoelectronics
Spin currents instead of charge currents
Magnetoresistance = Change of the
resistance in a magnetic field

Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR):

(Metal spacer, here Cu)

Tunnel Magnetoresistance (TMR):

(Insulating spacer, MgO)
 ELEC 7970 Special Topics on
Nanoscale Science and Technology

Quantum Wells, Nanowires, and Nanodots

Summer 2003

Y. Tzeng
ECE
Auburn University
 Quantum confinement
 Trap particles and restrict their motion
 Quantum confinement produces new material
behavior/phenomena
 “Engineer confinement”- control for specific
applications
 Structures
Quantum dots (0-D) only
confined states, and no freely moving
ones
Nanowires (1-D) particles travel
only along the wire
Quantum wells (2-D) confines
particles within a thin layer
http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
http://phys.educ.ksu.edu/vqm/index.html (Scientific American)
 Figure 11: Energy-band profile of a structure containing three quantum
wells, showing the confined states in each well. The structure consists of
GaAs wells of thickness 11, 8, and 5 nm in Al0.4  Ga0.6  As barrier layers.
The gaps in the lines indicating the confined state energies show the
locations of nodes of the corresponding wavefunctions.

Quantum well heterostructures are key components of many

optoelectronic devices, because they can increase the strength of electro-
optical interactions by confining the carriers to small regions. They are
also used to confine electrons in 2-D conduction sheets where electron
scattering by impurities is minimized to achieve high electron mobility
and therefore high speed electronic operation.
http://www.utdallas.edu/~frensley/technical/hetphys/node11.html#SECTION00050000000000000000
http://www.utdallas.edu/~frensley/technical/hetphys/hetphys.html
http://www.eps12.kfki.hu/files/WoggonEPSp.pdf
http://www.evidenttech.com/pdf/wp_biothreat.pdf
http://www.evidenttech.com/why_nano/why_nano.php
February 2003
The Industrial Physicist Magazine

Quantum Dots for Sale

                     Nearly 20 years after their discovery,
semiconductor quantum dots are emerging as a bona fide
industry with a few start-up companies poised to introduce
products this year. Initially targeted at biotechnology
applications, such as biological reagents and cellular imaging,
quantum dots are being eyed by producers for eventual use in
light-emitting diodes (LEDs), lasers, and telecommunication
devices such as optical amplifiers and waveguides. The strong
commercial interest has renewed fundamental research and
directed it to achieving better control of quantum dot self-
assembly in hopes of one day using these unique materials for
quantum computing.
Semiconductor quantum dots combine many of the properties
of atoms, such as discrete energy spectra, with the capability of
being easily embedded in solid-state systems. "Everywhere you
see semiconductors used today, you could use semiconducting
quantum dots," says Clint Ballinger, chief executive officer of
Evident Technologies, a small start-up company based in Troy,
New York...
http://www.evidenttech.com/news/news.php
Quantum Dots for Sale Emission Peak[nm] 535±10 560±10 585±10 610±10 640±10

The Industrial Physicist Typical FWHM [nm]

1st Exciton Peak

<30 <30 <30 <30 <40

reports that quantum dots

522 547 572 597 627
[nm - nominal]

Crystal Diameter

are emerging as a bona

2.8 3.4 4.0 4.7 5.6
[nm - nominal]

Part Number (4ml)

05-535-04 05-560-04 05-585-04 05-610-04 05-640-04

fide industry.
SG-CdSe-Na-TOL

Part Number (8ml)

05-535-08 05-560-08 05-585-08 05-610-08 05-640-08
SG-CdSe-Na-TOL

Evident Nanocrystals
Evident's nanocrystals can be separated from the
solvent to form self-assembled thin films or
combined with polymers and cast into films for use
in solid-state device applications. Evident's
semiconductor nanocrystals can be coupled to
secondary molecules including proteins or nucleic
acids for biological assays or other applications.

http://www.evidenttech.com/why_nano/docs.php
http://www.evidenttech.com/index.php
EviArray
Capitalizing on the distinctive properties of
EviDots™, we have devised a unique and
patented microarray assembly. The
EviArray™ is fabricated with nanocrystal
tagged oligonucleotide
probes that are also
attached to a fixed
substrate in such a
way that the
nanocrystals can
only fluoresce when
the DNA probe
couples with the
corresponding target
genetic sequence.

http://www.evidenttech.com/why_nano/docs.php
EviDots - Semiconductor nanocrystals
EviFluors- Biologically functionalized EviDots
EviProbes- Oligonucleotides with EviDots
EviArrays- EviProbe-based assay system

Optical Transistor- All optical 1 picosecond performance

Telecommunications- Optical Switching based on EviDots
Energy and Lighting- Tunable bandgap semiconductor
Why nanowires?
“They represent the smallest dimension for efficient
transport of electrons and excitons, and thus will be
used as interconnects and critical devices in
nanoelectronics and nano-optoelectronics.” (CM
Lieber, Harvard)

General attributes & desired properties

 Diameter – 10s of nanometers
 Single crystal formation -- common crystallographic orientation along the
nanowire axis
 Minimal defects within wire
 Minimal irregularities within nanowire arrays

http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
Nanowire fabrication
 Challenging!
 Template assistance
 Electrochemical deposition
 Ensures fabrication of electrically continuous wires
since only takes place on conductive surfaces
 Applicable to a wide range of materials
 High pressure injection
 Limited to elements and heterogeneously-melting
compounds with low melting points
 Does not ensure continuous wires
 Does not work well for diameters < 30-40 nm
 CVD
 Laser assisted techniques http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
Magnetic nanowires
 Important for storage device applications
 Cobalt, gold, copper and cobalt-copper nanowire
arrays have been fabricated
 Electrochemical deposition is prevalent fabrication
technique
 <20 nm diameter nanowire arrays have been
fabricated

Cobalt nanowires on Si substrate

(UMass Amherst, 2000)

http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
 Silicon nanowire CVD growth techniques
 With Fe/SiO2 gel template (Liu et al, 2001)
 Mixture of 10 sccm SiH4 & 100 sccm
helium, 5000C, 360 Torr and deposition time
of 2h
 Straight wires w/ diameter ~ 20nm and
length ~ 1m
 With Au-Pd islands (Liu et al, 2001)
 Mixture of 10 sccm SiH4 & 100 sccm
helium, 8000C, 150 Torr and deposition time
of 1h
 Amorphous Si nanowires
 Decreasing catalyst size seems to improve
nanowire alignment
 Bifurcation is common
 30-40 nm diameter and length ~ 2m
http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
Template assisted nanowire growth

 Create a template for nanowires to grow within

 Based on aluminum’s unique property of self organized
pore arrays as a result of anodization to form alumina
(Al2O3)
 Very high aspect ratios may be achieved
 Pore diameter and pore packing densities are a function
of acid strength and voltage in anodization step
 Pore filling – nanowire formation via various physical
and chemical deposition methods

http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
Al2O3 template preparation
 Anodization of aluminum
 Start with uniform layer of ~1m Al
 Al serves as the anode, Pt may serve as the cathode, and 0.3M
oxalic acid is the electrolytic solution
 Low temperature process (2-50C)
 40V is applied
 Anodization time is a function of sample size and distance
between anode and cathode
 Key Attributes of the process (per M. Sander)
 Pore ordering increases with template thickness – pores are more
ordered on bottom of template
 Process always results in nearly uniform diameter pore, but not
always ordered pore arrangement
 Aspect ratios are reduced when process is performed when in
contact with substrate (template is ~0.3-3 m thick)
http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
The alumina (Al2O3) template

(T. Sands/ HEMI group http://www.mse.berkeley.edu/groups/Sands/HEMI/nanoTE.html)

alumina template

http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
Si substrate 100nm
(M. Sander)
 Electrochemical deposition
 Works well with thermoelectric materials and metals
 Process allows to remove/dissolve oxide barrier layer
so that pores are in contact with substrate
 Filling rates of up to 90% have been achieved

Bi2Te3 nanowire
unfilled pore
alumina template http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
(T. Sands/ HEMI group http://www.mse.berkeley.edu/groups/Sands/HEMI/nanoTE.html)
Template-assisted, Au nucleated Si nanowires
 Gold evaporated (Au nanodots) into thin ~200nm
alumina template on silicon substrate
 Ideally reaction with silane will yield desired results
 Need to identify equipment that will support this
process – contamination, temp and press issues
 Additional concerns include Au thickness, Au on
alumina surface, template intact vs removed

Au dots
Au

100nm
1µm
http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
(M. Sander) template (top)
Nanometer gap between metallic electrodes
Before breaking

SET with a 5nm CdSe nanocrystal

After breaking
Electromigration caused by electrical current flowing
through a gold nanowire yields two stable metallic electrodes
separated by about 1nm with high efficiency. The gold
nanowire was fabricated by electron-beam lithography and
shadow evaporation.
http://www.lassp.cornell.edu/lassp_data/mceuen/homepage/Publications/EMPaper.pdf
 Quantum and localization of nanowire conductance

Nanoscale size exhibits the following properties different from those

found in the bulk:
§quantized conductance in point contacts and narrow channels
whose characteristics (transverse) dimensions approach the
electronic wave length
§Localization phenomena in low dimensional systems
§Mechanical properties characterized by a reduced propensity for
creation and propagation of dislocations in small metallic samples.

Conductance of nanowires depend on

§the length,
§lateral dimensions,
§state and degree of disorder and
§elongation mechanism of the wire.
http://dochost.rz.hu-berlin.de/conferences/conf1/PDF/Pascual.pdf
 Short nanowire “Long” nanowire

Conductance during elongation of The resistance of “long” wires, as

short wires exhibits periodic long as 100-400 A exhibits
quantization steps with characteristic localization characterization with
dips, correlating with the order- ln R(L) ~ L2
disorder states of layers of atoms in
the wire.
http://dochost.rz.hu-berlin.de/conferences/conf1/PDF/Pascual.pdf
 Electron localization

At low temperatures, the resistivity of a metal is dominated by the

elastic scattering of electrons by impurities in the system. If we treat the
electrons as classical particles, we would expect their trajectories to
resemble random walks after many collisions, i.e., their motion is diffusive
when observed over length scales much greater than the mean free path.
This diffusion becomes slower with increasing disorder, and can be
measured directly as a decrease in the electrical conductance.

When the scattering is so frequent that the distance travelled by

the electron between collisions is comparable to its wavelength, quantum
interference becomes important. Quantum interference between different
scattering paths has a drastic effect on electronic motion: the electron
wavefunctions are localized inside the sample so that the system becomes
an insulator. This mechanism (Anderson localization) is quite different
from that of a band insulator for which the absence of conduction is due to
the lack of any electronic states at the Fermi level.
http://www.cmth.ph.ic.ac.uk/derek/research/loc.html
Molecular nanowire with negative
differential resistance at room temperature

http://research.chem.psu.edu/mallouk/articles/b203047k.pdf
 Resistivity of ErSi2 Nanowires on Silicon

ErSi2 nanowires on a clean surface

of Si(001). Resistance of nanowire vs its length.

ErSi2 nanowire self-assembled along a <110> axis of the Si(001)

substrate, having sizes of 1-5nm, 1-2nm and <1000nm, in width, height,
and length, respectively. The resistance per unit length is 1.2M/nm
along the ErSi2 nanowire. The resistivity is around 1cm, which is 4
orders of magnitude larger than that for known resistivity of
bulk ErSi2, i.e., 35 cm. One of the reasons may be due to an
elastically-elongated lattice spacing along the ErSi2 nanowire as a result
of lattice mismatch between the ErSi2 and Si(001) substrate.
http://www.riken.go.jp/lab-www/surf-inter/tanaka/gyouseki/ICSTM01.pdf
 Last stages of the
contact breakage during
the formation of
nanocontacts.

Conductance current during the

breakage of a nanocontact.
Voltage difference between
electrodes is 90.4 mV
Electronic conductance through nanometer-sized systems is quantized when its
constriction varies, being the quantum of conductance, Go=2 e2/h,
where e is the electron charge and h is the Planck constant, due to the change
of the number of electronic levels in the constriction.
The contact of two gold wire can form a small contact resulting in a relative
low number of eigenstates through which the electronic ballistic
transport takes place.
http://physics.arizona.edu/~stafford/costa-kraemer.pdf
 Setup for conductance quantization
studies in liquid metals. A
micrometric screw is used to control
the tip displacement.
http://physics.arizona.edu/~stafford/costa-kraemer.pdf
Evolution of the current and conductance at the
first stages of the formation of a liquid metal
contact. The contact forms between a copper
wire and (a) mercury (at RT) and (b) liquid tin
(at 300C). The applied bias voltage between tip
and the metallic liquid reservoir is 90.4 mV.
 Conductance transitions due to
mechanical instabilities for gold
nanocontacts in UHV at RT: (a)
between 0 and 1 quantum channel. (b)
between 0 and 2 quantum channels.
http://physics.arizona.edu/~stafford/costa-kraemer.pdf
Conductance transitions due to
mechanical instabilities for gold
nanocontacts in UHV at RT:
Transition from nine to five and to
seven quantum channels.