Electronic

Instrumentation and
Measurements, 3/e

David A. Bell

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 Chapter 2

Measurement Errors

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Measurement Error Combinations
• When a quantity is calculated from
measurements made by two or more
instruments. The resulting error is then larger
than the error in one instrument.

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 Sum of quantities
• Where a quantities is determine as the sum of
two measurements, the total error is the sum
of the absolute errors in each measurements.
E=(V1+V2) ± (ΔV1 ± ΔV2)

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Sum of Quantities

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 Difference of Quantities
• Potential difference is determined as the
difference between two measured values.
Here again the error are additive.

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Difference of Quantities

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 Product of Quantities
• When a calculated quantity is the product of
two or more quantities the percentage error is
the sum of percentage error in each quantity.

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Sum of Quantities

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 Quotient of Quantities
• In the quotient of quantities the percentage
error is still sum of errors.

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 Quantity Raised to a Power
• When a quantity A is raised to a power B, the
percentage error in AB can be shown to be
% error in AB = B(% error in A)
• For a current I with an accuracy of ±3% the
error in I2 is 2(±3%)= 6%

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 Accuracy
• When a voltmeter with an error of ±1%
indicates exactly 100V, the true level of
measured voltage is somewhere between 99V
and 101V.
• Thus, the measurement accuracy of ±1%
defines as how close the measurement is to
the actual measured quantities.

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 Precision
• The precision of measurement is a quantity
indicates the closeness with which a repeated
set of measurement of the same variable or
the average of measurements.

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 Statistical analysis of error
measurements
• Arithmetic mean: Sum of set of numbers
divided by total numbers.

• Deviation: is the difference between each

piece of test data and the arithmetic mean.

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Elements of electronic instruments
• Transducer: It convert nonelectrical signals
into an electrical signal.
• Signal modifier: It is required to process the
incoming electrical signal to make it suitable
for application.
• Indicating device: It is generally a deflection or
display of the meter.

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 Chapter 3

Classical Electromechanical
Instrument

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 Permanent magnet moving coil
(PMMC)
• The PMMC instrument consists of light weight
coil of copper wire suspended in the field of
permanent magnet.
• Current in the wire cause the coil to produce
magnetic field that interact with the field form
the magnet resulting in partial rotation.

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 Permanent magnet moving coil
(PMMC)
• PMMC is essentially a low level dc ammeter,
however, with the use of parallel connected
resistor, it can be used for wide range of direct
current level.
• It can also be used as dc voltmeter or
ohmmeter by connecting appropriate value of
resistor in series or parallel with the coil.

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Deflection Instrument Fundamentals

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 PMMC
• A deflection instrument uses a pointer that
moves over a calibrated scale to indicate a
measured quantity.
• Three forces are operating in this mechanism.
– Deflection force
– Controlling force
– Damping force

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Deflection Instrument Fundamentals

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• Deflecting force: It causes the pointer to move
from zero position when current is applied.
• In PMMC the deflecting force is magnet.
• When a current flow in lightweight moving coil
pivoted between the pole of permanent
magnet.
• A force is exerted on the current carrying coil,
causing the coil to rotate on its pivots.

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• Controlling force: It is provided by the spiral
springs. The springs retain the coil and the
pointer at their zero position when no current
is flowing. When the current flow the spring
wide up as the coil rotate and the force they
exert on the coil increases.
• The spring material must be non magnetic to
avoid any magnetic field influence on the
controlling force.
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• Damping force: it is required to minimize the
oscillations. It must be present only when the
coil is in motion. Thus it is generated by the
rotating coil.
• In PMMC the damping force is normally
provided by eddy current. Eddy current induced
in the coil former set up magnetic flux that
opposes the coil motion, thus damping the
oscillation in the coil.
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 Suspension

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 Suspension

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 Suspension
• Two method of supporting the moving system
deflection instrument.
• Jeweled bearing suspension: the pointed end of the
shaft or pivot fastened to the coil are inserted into
cone shaped cuts in jewel bearing.
• Taut-band method: two flat metal ribbons held under
tension by spring to support the coils. The ribbon
also insert controlling force as they twist.

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 Suspension

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 Suspension

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Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument

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Construction of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Instrument

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Torque equation and scale

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Torque equation and scale

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Torque Equation & Scale

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Electrodynamic Instruments

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AC Operation of Electrodynamic Instruments

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AC Operation of Electrodynamic Instruments

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Electrodynamic Voltmeter & Ammeter

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Moving Iron Instruments

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Concentric-vane Moving-iron Instruments

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Concentric-vane Moving-iron Instruments

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Attraction Type Electrostatic Voltmeter

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Quadrant Type Electrostatic Voltmeter

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Idiostatic & Heterostatic Connection in Quadrant Type
Voltmeter

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Hot-wire Instruments

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 Thermocouples

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Vacuum Tube Thermocouple

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Compensated Thermocouple

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Thermocouple Bridge

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 Galvanometer

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Ballistic Galvanometer

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 Null Detector

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Electromechanical instruments

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