Bridge Loadings

Types of loads
Permanent Loads
Transient Loads
Permanent Loads
DC = dead load of structural
components and nonstructural attachments
DD = down drag
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and
utilities
EH = horizontal earth pressure load
EL= accumulated locked-in effects
resulting from the construction process
ES = earth surcharge load
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of
earth fill
Transient Loads
 BR = vehicular braking force
CE = vehicular centrifugal force
CR = creep
CT = vehicular collision force
EQ = earthquake
FR = friction
I M = vehicular dynamic load allowance
LL = vehicular live load
LS = live load surcharge
PL = pedestrian live load
SE = settlement
SH = shrinkage
TG = temperature gradient
TU = uniform temperature
WA = water load and stream pressure
WL = wind on live load
WS = wind load on structure
Types of loads contd.
 Dead load shall include the weight of all components of the structure,
appurtenances and utilities attached thereto, earth cover, wearing surface,
future overlays, and planned widening.
  Dead load can usually be determined more accurately than any other type of
loading. One major source of error is failure to consider some of the elements
that will contribute to dead load. Some items that are often overlooked are:
◦ Wearing surfaces
◦ Railings and Utilities
◦ Structure modifications not shown on plans
 Other items that can affect the calculation of dead load are dimensional
variations in the concrete section and variations in the unit weight of material.
 The prescribed dead load factor recognizes the uncertainties in the nominal
dimensions and analysis of dead load effects. Overlay thicknesses are a
source of greater uncertainty in the dead load so they are assigned a 20%
higher load factor unless cores or more detailed measurements are made.
 MATERIAL DENSITY (kg/m3) Force effect
(kN/m3)
Bituminous Wearing Surfaces 2250 22.5

Cast Iron 7200 72

Cinder (volcanic stone) Filling 960 9.6
Compacted Sand, silt, or Clay 1925 19.3
Concrete 2400 24
Loose Sand, Silt, or Gravel 1800 18
Soft Clay 1700 17
Rolled Gravel or Ballast 2250 22.5
Steel 7850 79
Stone Masonry 2725 27.3
Wood Hard 960 9.6
Soft 800 8
Water Fresh 1000 10
Live Loads

The guidelines specify the number of vehicles

to be considered on the bridge at any one time.
These numbers are based on an estimate of the
maximum likely number of vehicles under
typical traffic situations. When unusual
conditions exist, adjustments to the specified
number of vehicles should be made.
Highway vehicles come in a wide variety of
sizes and configurations.
No single vehicle or load model can accurately
reflect the effects of all of these vehicles.
Live Loads contd.

The variation will usually be greater than the

variation in dead load effect.
To minimize this difference, it is necessary to
select a rating Legal Truck with axle spacing and
relative axle weights similar to actual vehicles.
Three Legal Trucks shown in Figure 4-1 to 4-3
are recommended as evaluation vehicles.
These vehicles, together with the prescribed live
load factors, give a realistic estimate of the
maximum live load effects of a variety of heavy
trucks in actual traffic.
Live Loads contd.
 The moving loads to be applied on the deck for calculating
maximum nominal live loading effects shall be the three Legal
Trucks.
 The spacing and axle weights chosen for these vehicle types were
selected from actual trucks. It is believed that these typical vehicles
correspond better to existing traffic and will provide more uniform
reliability than the old standard AASHTO H or HS design trucks.
 In computing load effects, one Legal Truck shall be considered
present in each lane. The positioning of the vehicle in each lane
shall be according to Chapter 3 of ERA: Load Requirements. It
is unnecessary to place more than one vehicle in a lane since the
load factors shown below have been modeled for this possibility.
These load factors shall be considered applicable for spans up to
60m.
Figure 4-1 Truck Type 3 Unit Weight = 227 kN

Figure 4-2 Truck Type 3-2 Unit Weight = 325 kN

Figure 4-3 Truck Type 3-3 Unit Weight = 364 kN
Number of Design Lanes: Generally, the number of design lanes
should be determined by taking the integer part of the ratio w/3600,
where w is the clear roadway width in mm between curbs and/or
barriers.
Multiple Presence of Live Load: The provisions of this subchapter
shall not be applied to the fatigue limit state for which one design
truck is used, regardless of the number of design lanes. Trucks will
be present in adjacent lanes on roadways with multiple design lanes
but this is unlikely that all adjacent lanes will be loaded
simultaneously. This will be considered by the multiple presence
factors.
When the loading condition includes the pedestrian loads combined
with one or more lanes of the vehicular live load, the pedestrian loads
shall be taken to be one loaded lane.
Number of Loaded 1 2 3 >3
Lanes
Multiple Presence 1.20 1.0 0.85 0.65
Factors “m”
Vehicular Live Loads

Vehicular live loading on the roadways of

bridges structures, designated HL-93, and
shall consist of a combination of the:
Design truck or design tandem, and
Design lane load

Design truck: The weights and spacing of
axles and wheels for the design truck shall be
as specified in Figure below.
 Plan of Design Truck Load
showing tire contact areas

4.3 m

4.3 –9.0 m

1.8 m
3.000 mm
Design Lane Load: The design lane load
shall consist of a load of 9.3 kN/m, uniformly
distributed in the longitudinal direction.
Transversely, the design lane load shall be
assumed to be uniformly distributed over a
3.0-m width.
The force effects from the design lane load
shall not be subject to a dynamic load
allowance.
Dynamic Load Allowance
(IM = Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance): Dynamic
effects due to moving vehicles shall be attributed to two
sources:
Hammering effect is the dynamic response of the wheel
assembly to riding surface discontinuities, such as deck
joints, cracks, potholes, and delaminations, and
Dynamic response of the bridge as a whole to passing
vehicles, which shall be due to long undulations in the
roadway pavement, such as those caused by settlement
of fill, or to resonant excitation as a result of similar
frequencies of vibration between bridge and vehicle. The
frequency of vibration of any bridge should not exceed 3
Hz.
Dynamic load allowance need not be applied to Retaining
walls not subject to vertical reactions from the
superstructure, and Foundation components that are
entirely below ground level.
The dynamic load allowance shall not be applied to
pedestrian loads or to the design lane load.
The factor to be applied to the static load shall be taken as:
(1 + IM/100).
Table 4.4 Dynamic Load Allowance, IM

Component IM

Deck Joints – All Limit States 75%

All Other Components

 Fatigue and 15%
 All Other Limit States
33%
 Centrifugal forces (CE= Vehicular Centrifugal
Force):
Centrifugal force is due to inertia force of vehicles on curved
bridges at speed. Centrifugal forces shall be applied
horizontally at a distance 1.8 m above the roadway surface.
Centrifugal forces shall be taken as the product of the axle
weights of the design truck or tandem and the factor C, taken
as:
2
4V
C 
3 gR

where: v = highway design speed (m/s)

g = gravitational acceleration: 9.81 (m/s2)
R = radius of curvature of traffic lane (m)
 a)Breaking Force (BR= Vehicular Braking Force):
From AASHTO Commentary 3.6.4 Based on energy principles,
and assuming uniform deceleration (retardation), the braking
force determined as a fraction "b" of vehicle weight is:

V2
b
2 ga

Where a = the length of uniform deceleration.

From AASHTO Article 3.6.4 Braking forces shall be taken as 25 % of

the axle weights of the design truck or tandem per lane placed in all
design lanes headed in the same direction.
These forces shall be assumed to act horizontally at a distance of
1800 mm above the roadway surface in either longitudinal direction to
cause extreme force effects.
Vehicular Collision (CT= Vehicular Collision Force):

Unless protections are provided a

horizontal force of 1800KN applied at
1.2m above the ground should be
considered
Pedestrian Loads

A pedestrian load of 3.6 kPa (kN/m2)

shall be applied to all sidewalks wider
than 0.6 m and considered simultaneously
with the vehicular design live load.
Water Loads (WA= Water Load and Stream Pressure)
 

 Static Pressure: Static pressure of water shall be assumed to act

perpendicular to the surface that is retaining the water. Pressure
shall be calculated as the product of height of water above the point
of consideration, the density of water, and "g" (the acceleration of
gravity = 9.81 m/s2).
 p =  * g * z * 10-9
Where p = static pressure (Mpa)
  = density of water (kg/m3)
 z = height of water above the point of consideration (mm)
 g = Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
 Design water levels for various limit states shall be as specified
and/or approved by ERA. If nothing else is stated, the assumed
water level at the service limit state shall be the design level and the
strength limit state 20%, or at least 0.2 m, above the design level.
  
Buoyancy: Buoyancy shall be considered an uplift force, taken as the sum
of the vertical components of static pressures, acting on all components
below design water level.
 Stream Pressure:
Longitudinal: For the purpose of this chapter, the longitudinal direction
refers to the major axis of a substructure unit.
 
The longitudinal drag force shall be taken as the product of longitudinal
stream pressure and the projected surface exposed thereto.
 p = 5.14*10-4 CDV2
Where: p= pressure of flowing water (MPa)
 CD= drag coefficient for piers as specified in Table below
 V= design velocity in m/s of water for the design flood in
strength and service limit states and for the check flood in the
extreme event limit state
Type CD
Semicircular-nosed pier 0.7
Square-ended pier 1.4
Debris lodged against the pier 1.4

Wedged-nosed pier with nose angle 0.8

90o or less
Figure 4-7 Debris Raft for Pier Design
 The longitudinal drag force shall be taken as the
product of longitudinal stream pressure and the
projected surface exposed thereto.
 
 Floating logs, roots, and other debris may accumulate
at piers and, by blocking parts of the waterway,
increase stream pressure load on the pier. Such
accumulation is a function of the availability of such
debris and level of maintenance efforts by which it is
removed. It shall be accounted for by the judicious
increase in both the exposed surface and the velocity of
water.
Lateral: The lateral, uniformly distributed
pressure on substructure due to water flowing at
an angle, , to the longitudinal axis of the pier
(see Figure below) shall be taken as:
PL=5.14x10-4CLV2
Where: PL = lateral pressure (MPa)
CL = lateral drag coefficient specified in Table
below.

Figure 4.8 Plan View of Pier Showing Stream Flow Pressure

 Table 4.6: Lateral Drag Coefficient
The lateral drag force shall be taken as the
product of the lateral stream pressure and the
surface exposed thereto.

Angle, , between direction of flow and CL

longitudinal axis of the pier

0o 0.0
1o 0.5
10o 0.7
20o 0.9
30o 1.0
Wind Loads
 (WL= Wind on Live load; WS= Wind load on Structure)
 Pressures specified herein shall be assumed to be caused
by a base design wind velocity, VB, of 160 km/h (= 45
m/s). Wind load shall be assumed to be uniformly
distributed on the area exposed to the wind. The exposed
area shall be the sum of areas of all components, including
floor system and railing, as seen in elevation taken
perpendicular to the assumed wind direction. This
direction shall be varied to determine the extreme force
effect in the structure or in its components. Areas that do
not contribute to the extreme force effect under
consideration shall be neglected in the analysis.
For bridges or parts of bridges more than 10 m
above low ground or water level, then design
wind velocity, VDZ (km/h), at design elevation, z,
should be adjusted according to:

V10  Z 
VDZ 2.5*Vo  Ln 
VB  Zo 

where: V10 = wind velocity at 10 m above low ground or above

design water level (km/h)
VB = base wind velocity of 160 km/h (45 m/s) at 10 m height,
yielding design pressures specified in following
subchapters Wind Pressure on Structures and Vertical Wind
Pressure
         Z = height of structure at which wind loads are being
calculated as measured from low ground, or from water
level, > 10 m (m)
Wind Pressure on Structures, (WS):

 For small and medium sized concrete bridges below 50m

length the wind load on structures shall be neglected.
 For large and/or light bridges the following shall apply. If
justified by local conditions, a different base design wind
velocity shall be selected for load combinations not
involving wind on live load. The direction of the design
wind shall be assumed horizontal, unless otherwise
specified in the following subchapter Aeroelastic
Instability. In the absence of more precise data, design
wind pressure, PD in kPa, shall be determined as:
 
 f) Earthquake Effects (EQ= Earthquake)
Earthquake loads are given by the product of the elastic seismic
response coefficient Csm and the equivalent weight of the
superstructure. These are inertia forces due to mass of the bridge
when a sudden shaking of the ground occurs. Minimum seat width
requirements shall be at least 500 mm at each abutment.
For multispan structures, the minimum analysis requirements shall
be as specified below:
Table 4.11 Minimum Analysis Requirements for Seismic Effects

Seismic Single- Multispan Bridges

Zone Span
Other Bridges Essential Bridges Critical Bridges
Bridges
Regular Irregular Regular Irregular Regular Irregular

1-3 No Seismic Analysis * * * * * *

4 Seismic Analysis SM/UL SM SM/UL MM MM MM
Minimum Analysis Requirements for Seismic Effects
 In which:
 * = no seismic analysis required (Zone 1-3)
 UL = uniform load elastic method
 SM = single-mode elastic method
 MM = multimode elastic method
 The selection of the method of analysis depends on seismic zone,
regularity, and importance of the bridge.
 Essential bridges are generally those that should, as a minimum,
be open to emergency vehicles and for security/defense purposes
immediately after the design earthquake, i.e., a 475-year return
period event. However, some bridges must remain open to all
traffic after the design earthquake and be usable by emergency
vehicles and for security/defense purposes immediately after a
large earthquake, e.g., a 2500 year return period event. These
bridges should be regarded as critical structures.
Earth Pressure
(EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure; ES = Earth Surcharge; LS
= Live Load Surcharge; DD = Down drag)
Earth pressure shall be considered as a function of the:
 
Type and density of earth,
Water content,
Soil creep characteristics,
Degree of compaction
Location of groundwater table,
Earth-structure interaction,
Amount of surcharge, and
Earthquake effects.
 
 Where:
 = movement of top of wall required to reach minimum active or
maximum passive pressure by tilting or lateral translation (mm)
 H = height of wall (mm)
 For walls that are backfilled with cohesive materials, the effects of soil
creep should be taken into consideration in estimating the design earth
pressures.
 Where activity by mechanical compaction equipment is anticipated within a
distance of one-half the height of the wall, taken as the difference in
elevation between the point where finished grade intersects the back of the
wall and the base of the wall, the effect of additional earth pressure that
shall be induced by compaction shall be taken into account.
 Wherever possible, the development of hydrostatic water pressure on walls
should be eliminated through use of free-draining (rapid-draining) backfill
material and/or the use of weep holes and crushed rock, pipe drains, gravel
drains, perforated drains, or geofabric drains that provide drainage.
  Where soils are subject to both saturation and seismic or other
cyclic/instantaneous loads, special consideration should be given to
addressing the possibility of soil liquefaction.
 Walls that can tolerate little or no movement should be
designed for at-rest earth pressure.
 Walls that can move away from the soil mass should be
designed for pressures between active and at-rest
conditions, depending on the magnitude of the tolerable
movements.
 Movement required to reach the minimum active pressure
or the maximum passive pressure is a function of the wall
height and the soil type.
 Some typical values of these mobilizing movements,
relative to wall height, are given in Table below:
 Approximate Values of Relative Movements Required to
Reach Minimum Active or Maximum Passive
Earth Pressure Conditions
 Values of /H
Type of Backfill
Active Passive

Dense sand 0.001 0.01

Medium-dense sand 0.002 0.02

Loose sand 0.004 0.04

Compacted silt 0.002 0.02
Compacted lean clay 0.010 0.05
Compacted fat clay 0.010 0.05
COMPACTION
 Where activity by mechanical compaction equipment is
anticipated within a distance of one-half the height of the wall,
taken as the difference in elevation between the point where
finished grade intersects the back of the wall and the base of the
wall, the effect of additional earth pressure that shall be induced
by compaction shall be taken into account.
 The heavier the equipment used to compact the backfill, and the
closer it operates to the wall, the larger are the compaction-
induced pressures. The magnitude of the earth pressures
exerted on a wall by compacted backfill can be minimized by
using only small rollers or hand compactors within a distance of
one-half wall height from the back of the wall.
PRESENCE OF WATER
 Wherever possible, the development of hydrostatic water
pressure on walls should be eliminated through use of free-
draining (rapid-draining) backfill material and/or the use of
weep holes and crushed rock, pipe drains, gravel drains,
perforated drains, or geofabric drains that provide drainage.
Figure 4-9 Effect of Groundwater Table
•EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure
There are two earth pressure theories used.
These are Rankin and Coulomb Earth
Pressure Theories.
Coulomb theory is recommended by AASHTO
for masonry and RC abutment since this theory
holds better for the actual situation.
Temperature Gradient, (TG): Temperature rise
can differ on the top and bottom surfaces of abridge
because the top surface is subjected to direct solar
radiation.
Differential Shrinkage, (SH): Where appropriate,
differential shrinkage strains between concretes of different
age and composition, and between concrete and steel or
wood, shall be determined. The designer may specify timing
and sequence of construction in order to minimize stresses
due to differential shrinkage between components.

 Creep,(CR): In determining force effects and deformations

due to creep, dependence on time and changes in
compressive stresses shall be taken into account.

Settlement, (SE): This will cause internal forces in

continues structures. Force effects due to extreme values of
differential settlements among substructures and within
individual substructure units shall be considered.
4.2 Design Philosophy
 In engineering design the general principle is that the resistance of a cross
section has to exceed the effects come from the applied loads. That is
 Resistance ≥Effect of Loads

 When a particular loading condition reaches and just exceeds the

resistance capacity of the provided section failure is the result. Such a
condition is referred to as a Limit State.
 A limit state is a condition beyond which a bridge system or bridge
component ceases to full fill the function for which it is designed.
 Preventing a limit state from being reached is the central goal of design
of bridges. In addition to this function, appearance and economy must get
due attention.
 Safety is achieved by using reasonable margin of safety factors. These
factors are results of collective experience and judgment of qualified
group of engineers and officials.
 In Highway Bridge design AASHTO LRFD provision
is used for bridge design.
 The resistance side of the inequality of Equation above
is multiplied by a statistically based resistance factor,
whose value is usually less than one, and the load side
is multiplied by a statistically based load factor, whose
value is usually greater than one.
 The load effect at a particular limit state involves a
combination of a different load types (Qi) that have
different degrees of predictability. Due to this reason
the load effect side is written in a summation form. The
equation is
   Rn  i  Qi

And this equation involves both load factors and

resistance factor due to this the design method is
called load and resistance factor design method. In
AASHTO LRFD bridge design specification the
equation is given by

  i  Qi    Rn
γi = load factor: a statistically based multiplier
applied to force effects specified in tables B and C
below
 
Qi = force effect
φ = resistance factor: a statistically based multiplier
applied to nominal resistance

Rn = nominal resistance
ηD = a factor relating to ductility, as specified below
ηR = a factor relating to redundancy as specified below
ηI= a factor relating to operational importance as
specified below
Rf = factored resistance: ϕRn
The additional parameter η is known as
load modifier which is incorporated to
consider ductility, redundancy and
operational importance of the bridge.
Under the umbrella of the LRFD the
strength limit state, extreme event limit
state, service limit state and fatigue and
fracture limit state exist.
DESIGN WORKING LIFE

 Concrete, stone and steel bridges shall be

designed for 100 years working life.
Concrete and Steel culverts with an
opening or diameter less than 2.0 m and
all timber bridges shall be designed for 50
years working life.
Limit States
General
Bridges shall be designed for specified limit states to
achieve the objectives of constructability, safety, and
serviceability, with due regard to issues of inspectability,
economy, and aesthetics.
Regardless of the type of analysis used, Equation (4.16)
shall be satisfied for all specified force effects and
combinations thereof.
Equation (4.16) below is the basis of the LRFD
methodology. Each component and connection shall satisfy
Equation (4.16) for each limit state, unless otherwise
specified. For service and extreme event limit states,
resistance factors shall be taken as 1.0.
Load Factors and Load Combinations

All limit states shall be considered of equal importance.

Σ ηi γi Qi ≤ ϕ Rn = Rf
for loads for which a maximum value of γi is appropriate:
 
ηi = ηD ηR ηI ≥ 0.95
 
for loads for which a minimum value of γi is appropriate:

ηi = 1 ≤ 1.0
ηD ηR ηI
Where: ηi = load modifier: a factor relating to ductility,
redundancy, and operational importance
Ductility, redundancy, and operational
importance are significant aspects affecting
the margin of safety of bridges.
Ductility, redundancy directly relate to
physical strength, operational importance
concerns the consequences of the bridge
being out of service.
SERVICE LIMIT STATE
 
The service limit state shall be taken as
restrictions on stress, deformation, and
crack width under regular service
conditions.
The service limit state provides certain
experience related provisions that cannot
always be derived solely from strength or
statistical considerations.
FATIGUE AND FRACTURE LIMIT STATE
The fatigue limit state shall be taken as
restrictions on stress range as a result of a
single design truck occurring at the number of
expected stress range cycles.
The fatigue limit state is intended to limit
crack growth under repetitive loads to prevent
fracture during the design life of the bridge.
The fracture limit state shall be taken as a set
of material toughness requirements of the
Technical Specifications.
STRENGTH LIMIT STATE
The strength limit state shall be taken to
ensure that strength and stability, both
local and global, are provided to resist the
specified statistically significant load
combinations that a bridge is expected to
experience in its design life.
Extensive distress and structural damage
may occur under strength limit state, but
overall structural integrity is expected to
be maintained.
EXTREME EVENT LIMIT STATES
The extreme event limit state shall be
taken to ensure the structural survival of a
bridge during a major earthquake or flood,
possibly under scoured conditions.
Extreme event limit states are considered
to be unique occurrences whose return
period shall be significantly greater than
the design life of the bridge.
STRENGTH I Basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use of the
bridge without wind.
A reduced value of 0.50, applicable to all strength load combinations,
specified for uniform temperature (TU), creep (CR), and shrinkage
(SH), used when calculating force effects other than displacements at
the strength limit state, represents an expected reduction of these force
effects in conjunction with the inelastic response of the structure. The
calculation of displacements for these loads utilizes a factor greater than
1.0 to avoid undersized joints and bearings.

STRENGTH II Load combination relating to the use of the bridge by ERA-specified

special design or permit vehicles, without wind.
The permit vehicle should not be assumed to be the only vehicle on the
bridge unless so assured by traffic control. Otherwise, the other lanes
should be assumed to be occupied by the vehicular live load as
specified herein. For bridges longer than the permit vehicle, the
presence of the design lane load, preceding and following the permit
load in its lane, should be considered.

STRENGTH III Load combination relating to the bridge exposed to wind velocity
exceeding 90 km/h.
Vehicles become unstable at higher wind velocities. Therefore, high
winds prevent the presence of significant live load on the bridge.
STRENGTH IV Load combination relating to very high dead load to live load
force effect ratios.
The standard calibration process for the strength limit state consists
of trying out various combinations of load and resistance factors on
a number of bridges and their components. Combinations that yield
a safety index close to the target value of  = 3.5 are retained for
potential application. From these are selected constant load factors
 and corresponding resistance factors  for each type of structural
component reflecting its use.
This calibration process had been carried out for a large number of
bridges with spans not exceeding 60 m. For the primary
components of large bridges, the ratio of dead and live load force
effects is rather high, and could result in a set of resistance factors
different from those found acceptable for small- and medium-span
bridges. It is believed to be more practical to investigate one
additional load case than to require the use of two sets of resistance
factors with the load factors provided in Strength Load Combination
I, depending on other permanent loads present. For bridges with up
to 180 m spans, Load Combination IV will govern where the dead
load to live load force effect ratio exceeds 7.0.
STRENGTH Load combination relating to normal vehicular use of the bridge with wind
V of 90 km/h (25 m/s) velocity

EXTREME Load combination including earthquake

EVENT I This limit state includes water loads, WA. The probability of a major
flood and an earthquake occurring at the same time is very small.
Therefore, consideration of basing water loads and scour depths on
mean discharges shall be warranted. Live load coincident with an
earthquake is discussed elsewhere in this chapter.
SERVICE I Load combination relating to the normal operational use of the bridge with
a 90 km/h (25 m/s) wind and all loads taken at their nominal values. Also
related to deflection control in buried metal structures, tunnel liner plate,
and thermoplastic pipe and to control crack width in reinforced concrete
structures. This load combination should also be used for the investigation
of slope stability.
Compression in prestressed concrete components is investigated using this
load combination. Service III is used to investigate tensile stresses in
prestressed concrete components.
SERVICE II Load combination intended to control yielding of steel structures and slip
of slip critical connections due to vehicular live load.
This load combination corresponds to the overload provision for steel structures,
and it is applicable only to steel structures. From the point of view of load level,
this combination is approximately halfway between that used for Service I and
Strength I Limit States.
SERVICE III Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed
concrete structures with the objective of crack control.
The live load specified in these Specifications reflects,
among other things, exclusion weight limits. The
statistical significance of the 0.80 factor on live load is
that the event is expected to occur about once a year for
bridges with two traffic lanes, less often for bridges
with more than two traffic lanes, and about once a day
for bridges with a single traffic lane.

FATIGUE Fatigue and fracture load combination relating to

repetitive gravitational vehicular live load and
dynamic responses under a single design truck having a
constant axle spacing of 9.0 m between 145 kN axles.
The load factor, applied to a single design truck,
reflects a load level found to be representative of the
truck population with respect to a large number of
return cycles of stresses and to their cumulative effects
in steel elements, components, and connections.
Load Combination DC LL WA WS WL FR TU TG SE Use one of these
DD IM CR at a time
DW CE SH
EH BR
EV PL
ES LS
EL
EQ CT

STRENGTH 1 p 1.75 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -

(Unless noted)

STRENGTH II p 1.35 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -

STRENGTH III p - 1.00 1.40 - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
STRENGTH IV - -
EH, EV, ES, DW p - 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 - -
DC ONLY 1.5

STRENGTH V p 1.35 1.00 0.50 1.0 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -

EXTREME p EQ 1.00 - - 1.00 - - - 1.00 -
EVENT I

SERVICE I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 1.0 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE - -
SERVICE II 1.00 1.30 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 - - - -
SERVICE III 1.00 0.80 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE - -
FATIGUE
LL, IM and CE - 0.75 - - - - - - - - -
Table C - Load Factors for Permanent Loads, p

Type of Load Load Factor (p)

Maximum Minimum
DC: Component and Attachments 1.25 0.90
DD: Downdrag 1.80 0.45
DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure
 Active 1.50 0.90
 At-Rest 1.35 0.90
EL: Locked-in Erection Stresses 1.0 1.0
EV: Vertical Earth Pressure
 Overall Stability 1.35 N/A
 Retaining Structure 1.35 1.00
 Rigid Buried Structure 1.30 0.90
 Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90
 Flexible Buried Structures other than 1.95 0.90
Metal Box Culvert 1.50 0.90
 Flexible Metal Box Culverts

ES: Earth Surcharge 1.50 0.75

For example, at Strength I Limit State where
the permanent load reaction is positive and
live load can cause a negative reaction, the
load combination would be:
0.9DC + 0.65DW + 1.75(LL+IM)

If both reactions were negative, the load

combination would be:
1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM).
Load Modifiers,
i = D R I :
 D = a factor relating to ductility, as
specified below
 R = a factor relating to redundancy as
specified below
 I = a factor relating to operational
importance as specified below
Ductility, redundancy, and operational
importance are significant aspects affecting
the margin of safety of bridges.
Ductility
 Ductility: The structural system of a bridge shall be proportioned
and detailed to ensure the development of significant and visible
inelastic deformations at the strength and extreme event limit
states prior to failure.
 For the strength limit state:
 D  1.05 for non-ductile components and connections
 D = 1.00 for conventional designs and details complying
with these Specifications
 D  0.95 for components and connections for which
additional ductility-enhancing measures have been
specified beyond those required by these Specifications
 For all other limit states:
 D = 1.00
Redundancy
Redundancy: Multiple load-path structures should
be used unless there are compelling reasons not to
use them.
For the strength limit state:
 R 1.05 for non redundant members
 =1.00 for conventional levels of redundancy
 0.95 For exceptional levels of
redundancy
For all other limit states:
 R = 1.00
Operational importance
 Operational importance: This definition shall apply to the
strength and extreme event limit states only. Some bridges
or structural components and connections shall be declared
to be of operational importance.
 Such classification should be based on social/survival
and/or security/defense requirements.
 For the strength limit state:
 l  1.05 for important bridges
 = 1.00 for typical bridges
 0.95 For relatively less important bridges
 For all other limit states:
 l = 1.00
For Conventional Construction, Resistance Factors
φ shall be taken as

For flexure and tension of RC = 0.9

For flexure and tension of PSC = 1.0
For shear and torsion = 0.9
For bearing on concrete = 0.7
For compression in strut-and-tie model = 0.7
For compression in anchorage zones = 0.8
For tension in steel in anchorage zones = 1.0
For resistance during pile driving = 1.0
The End!
Thank You!