ANATOMY &

PHYSIOLOGY
LABORATORY
PREPARED BY:

STEFAN PAUL U. BALANI, RMT

The Human Nervous System
Objectives:

 List and describe the major forms of special senses.

 Identifythe location, the structure, and function of
the special sense organs.
a. Tactile
b. Gustation
c. Olfactory
d. Visual
e. Auditory
26
Tactility: Touch
 Specialized nerve receptors are located in the dermal layers of
the skin which are sensitive to pressure associated with touch,
heat, cold, and pain. These are specially modified sensory
neurons called receptors. There are also receptors in muscle
tissue which detect stretching, force of contraction and the
stretching of tendons.

27
 Skin Receptors
 Skin:
I. Free nerve endings:
a. Nocireceptors: Temperature, mechanical (pain
itching, tickle, stretching) Dermis
b. Merkel discs: Light pressure, mechanical (discriminative touch)
Dermis
c. Root hair plexus: Hair movement, mechanical dermis
II. Encapsulated Nerve Endings:
a. Meissner’s corpuscle: light pressure mechanical, Located in hairless
areas, palms or hands and soles of feet. (discriminative touch,
vibrations.) Dermis
b. Ruffini’s corpuscle: mechanical, thermal (rough and persistent
touch) Dermis
c. Krauses corpuscle: mechanical, thermal (touch, low frequency
vibrations) Dermis of mucus membranes
d. Pacinian corpuscle: Deep pressure, mechanical (deep pressure,
stretch, and high frequency vibrations) Dermis of skin and joint capsules

28
Skin Receptors

29
 Gustation: Taste
 Taste buds:
 located on the tongue, some are located within other
areas of the mouth
 Papillae: small elevated projections on the tongue
 Fungiform (sweet), circumvallate (bitter), and foliate (sour) contain taste buds (all taste
salty)
 Filiform are sensitive to touch
 Gustatory cells - specialized receptors located on each
taste bud (50-125 per taste bud); have special hair like
projections (sensitive to various chemicals - acts as
stimuli for various taste sensations)
 gustatory nerves - connected by the cranial nerves to
the medulla oblongata  relays the message to the
thalamus  to the gustatory center of the brain where
the stimulus is interpreted.
 Gustation and olfaction are closely associated to
produce the sensation of taste.
30
Gustation: Taste

31
Olfactory: Smell

 Sensorycells - located in the epithelial lining of

the mucous membrane of the nose
 Olfactory neural chemoreceptors - have
specialized cilia which detect the presence of
specific chemicals within the air we breath
 The neurons connected to the olfactory bulb
when stimulated sends a message to the olfactory
center of the brain where the smell is interpreted
32
Olfactory Smell

33
Auditory (Hearing) and Balance
 The ear is a duel organ, not only is responsible for
the sense of hearing but also it functions as the organ
of balance.
 The sensation of balance and hearing are both
associated with specialized receptors with hair-like
mechanoreceptors (hair cells).
 The ear is divided into three major regions:
a. External: Pinna or auricle and auditory canal
b. Middle : Tympanic membrane (eardrum) and
auditory ossicles ( malleus (hammer), incus
(anvil) and stapes (stirrup)
c. Inner: Semicircular canals and vestibular
nerve (balance) and the cochlea and round or oval
window and the cochlear nerve (sound)
34
Auditory (Hearing) and Balance

35
Hearing
 Outer ear:
 Pinna – ear flap
 Collects and directs sound waves into the ear
 Auditory canal – channels waves to the ear drum; houses ceruminous glands
 Ceruminous glands - secrete ear wax (cerumin) to keep ear drum moist
 Tympanic membrane – ear drum
 Catches vibrations and sends them to the bones of the inner ear; separates the outer
and middle ear

36
Hearing

 Middle ear:
 Eustachian tube – connects the ear to the throat and equalizes pressure
 Ossicles:
 Hammer (malleus) – outermost bones, receives vibrations from tympanic membrane
 Anvil (incus) – middle bone
 Stirrup (stapes) – innermost bone, transfers vibrations to the cochlea

37
Hearing
 Inner Ear:
 Vestibule – space between the cochlea and
semicircular canals
 Cochlea– snail shaped structure; fluid filled with
endolymph and perilymph; contains the organ of corti
 Organ of Corti – tiny hair-like cells that pick up
vibrations and transfer them to the auditory nerve
 Semicircular canals – contain liquid (perilymph) and
tiny hair-like cells that blend with motion to help
maintain equilibrium
 Auditorynerve – carries information from the ear to
the temporal lobe of the brain
38
Hearing

 Inner ear continued:

 Perilymph – thin liquid in spaces of the inner ear
 Endolymph – thick liquid found in the cochlear ducts of the inner ear

39
 Auditory (Hearing)
 Pinna is designed to capture sound vibrations and
channel them into the auditory canal.
 The tympanic membrane transfers the sound vibrations
to the auditory ossicles of the middle ear.
 The auditory ossicles then transfer the vibrations to the
round window of the cochlea.

40
Auditory (Hearing)
 Within the cochlea is the organ of Corti where the hair
cells are located. Each respond to a different
frequency of vibration.
 The cochlea have canals which are filled with fluid,
which surrounds the Organ of Corti.
 When the fluid is stimulated by vibrations from the
round window, the fluid transfers the vibrations to the
hair cells, which then transfers the message to the
auditory center of brain for interpretation through the
acoustic nerve

41
Hearing pathway

 Pinna  auditory canal  tympanic membrane  malleus  incus  stapes

 cochlea  Organ of Corti  auditory nerve  temporal lobe of brain

42
Vision

 The eye is the organ of vision.

 It converts light energy into electrical nerve impulses
which are then interpreted by the brain as sight.
 The lens of the eye focus light on the retina.
 The retina contain specialized nerve receptors
sensitive to light intensity (rods) and wavelengths or
colors of light (cones).
 The optic nerve then carries the message to the brain
where it is interpreted as sight in the visual center of
the occipital lobes.
43
Vision

 Conjunctiva– the thin, transparent tissue that

covers the outer surface of the eye
 Secretes oils and mucus that moisten and lubricate the
eye
 Cornea – clear, allows light to enter the eye.
 Most anterior part of the eye.
 Eye lashes – protect the eye from debris
 Eye lid – works to keep the eye moist (blink)
44
Vision
 Sclera – the white of the eye
 Holds the shape and protects the inner eye
 Lens – directs images to the retina; helps focus
on images by changing shape
 Lacrimal gland – produces tears
 Tears cleanse and moisten they eye, kills bacteria
 Pupil – a space in the iris where light enters
 Iris – the colored part of the eye; muscular
 Controlsthe amount of light entering the eye by
changing the size of the pupil
45
Vision
 Choroid coat – middle of the 3 eye layers; has dark pigment to keep light
from scattering
 Aqueous humor – watery substance anterior to the lens; helps maintain
shape of eye ball and refracts light
 Vitreous humor – jelly-like substance found posterior to the lens inside the
eyeball; helps maintain eyeball shape and refracts light

46
Vision
 Ciliary body – muscle that controls the shape of the lens
 Suspensory ligaments – hold the lens in place
 Retina – interior most layer of the eye
 Rich in nerve cells
 Rods – cells for dim light
 Cones – receptor cells for sensitivity to bright light (color)
 Macula – center region of the retina; area for sharp central vision

47
Vision

 Optic Nerve – carries impulse from the retina to the occipital lobe of the brain
 Optic disk – blind spot; no receptors therefore no vision
 Fovea centralis – site of cones
 Extrafovial region – area of rods
 Also where peripheral vision occurs

48
Eye Structure

49
The tongue

50
 Chapter 5
The Skeletal System
Day 1 Notes:
The Skeletal System
· Parts of the skeletal system
· Bones (skeleton)
· Joints
· Cartilages
· Ligaments (bone to bone)(tendon=bone to muscle)
· Divided into two divisions
· Axial skeleton: bones of the skull, vertebral column,
and rib cage
· Appendicular skeleton: bones of the upper and lower
limbs, shoulder and hip
Functions of Bones

· Support of the body

· Protection of soft organs
· Movement due to attached skeletal
muscles
· Storage of minerals and fats
· Blood cell formation
Bones of the Human Body
· The adult skeleton has 206 bones
· Two basic types of bone tissue
· Compact bone
· Homogeneous
· Spongy bone
· Small needle-like
pieces of bone
· Many open spaces
Classification of Bones on the
Basis of Shape

Figure 5.1
 Classification of Bones
· 1. Long bones
· Typically longer than wide
· Have a shaft with heads at both ends
· Contain mostly compact bone
• Examples: Femur, humerus
Classification of Bones

· 2. Short bones
· Generally cube-shape
· Contain mostly spongy bone
· Examples: Carpals, tarsals
Classification of Bones

· 3. Flat bones
· Thin and flattened
· Usually curved
· Thin layers of compact bone around a layer
of spongy bone
· Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum
Classification of Bones

· 4. Irregular bones
· Irregular shape
· Do not fit into other bone classification
categories
· Example: Vertebrae and hip
Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone

· Diaphysis
· Shaft (middle)
· Composed of
compact bone
· Epiphysis
· Ends of the bone
· Composed mostly of
spongy bone
Figure 5.2a
Structures of a Long Bone
· 1. Periosteum
· Outside covering of
the diaphysis
· Fibrous connective
tissue membrane
· 2. Sharpey’s fibers
· Secure periosteum to
underlying bone
· 3. Arteries
· Supply bone cells
with nutrients Figure 5.2c
Structures of a Long Bone

· 4. Articular cartilage
· Covers the external
surface of the
epiphyses
· Made of hyaline
cartilage
· Decreases friction at
joint surfaces
Figure 5.2a
Structures of a Long Bone

· 5. Medullary cavity
· Cavity of the shaft
· Contains yellow
marrow (mostly fat)
in adults
· Contains red marrow
(for blood cell
formation) in infants
Figure 5.2a
Bones of the Skull

Figure 5.11
Paranasal Sinuses
· Functions of paranasal sinuses
· Lighten the skull
· Give resonance and amplification to voice

Figure 5.10
The Hyoid Bone
· The only bone that
does not articulate
(move) with
another bone

· Serves as a
moveable base for
the tongue

Figure 5.12
The Fetal Skull
· Fontanelles –
fibrous membranes
connecting the
cranial bones
· Allow the brain
to grow
· Convert to bone
within 24 months
after birth
Figure 5.13
The Vertebral Column
· Vertebrae
separated by
intervertebral discs
· The spine has a
normal curvature
· Each vertebrae is
given a name
according to its
location Figure 5.14
The Appendicular Skeleton

Figure 5.6c
 What is the muscular system?
The muscular
system consists of
all the muscles of
the body. These
make up
approximately 42%
of total body weight,
and are composed
of long, slender cells
known as fibers. The
fibers are different
lengths and vary in
color from white to
deep red.
 What is the muscular system?
Each muscle consists of a group of
fibers held together by connective
tissue, and enclosed in a fibrous sheath
or fascia (FASH ee ah).
3 types of muscle…
Muscles cause movement, help to maintain
posture, and produce heat. There are 3 types,
classified according to function and appearance:
 3 types of muscle… Skeletal muscles are
elastic and work in pairs -
one flexing while the other
is extending. They are
striated, with horizontal
markings, and are
stimulated to contract by
electrical impulses from
the nervous system.
Fast, white muscle fibers contract rapidly, have poor
blood supply, operate without oxygen, and tire
quickly. Slow, red muscle fibers contract more
slowly, have better blood supplies, operate with
oxygen, and do not tire as easily. They are used in
ongoing movements, such as maintaining posture.
 3 types of muscle… Smooth muscle lines
most hollow organs
of the body, such as
the intestines,
stomach, and
uterus. They help
move substances
Smooth muscles contract through tubular
slower than skeletal muscles, areas such as blood
but can remain contracted vessels and the
longer, and are not as small intestines,
dependent on oxygen. They contracting
are stimulated by electrical automatically and
impulses or hormones, and rhythmically.
use carbohydrates for energy.
3 types of muscle… The cardiac
muscle or
myocardium are
striated like
skeletal muscles,
but are smaller
and shorter.

They are stimulated to contract by electrical

impulses sent out from small clumps of
specialized tissue in the heart… the sinoatrial
(sī-nō-Ā-trē-ul) and atrioventricular node
(ā-trē-ō-ven-trik-y ə-lər) nodes.
Parts of a muscle…
A tendon is a means of
attachment, connecting
the muscle to the bone.
They vary in length, from
less than an inch to more
than a foot.

A wide sheet-like
tendon is called an
aponeurosis
(ap ah nyu ROH
siss).
 Major Mastoid

muscles… Pectoral
Biceps
Obliques
Abdominal

Rectus Femoris
Sartorius (Rec tus FĔM er us)
(sahr TOR ee us)

Tibialis
(tib ee AIL us) Gastrocnemius
(gas trock NEE mee us)
Soleus
(SŌ lee us)
 Major Trapezius
(trah PEE zee us)

muscles…
Deltoid
Latissimus Dorsi (DEL toid)
(lah TISS ah mus DOOR sigh)
Triceps
Gluteus medius
(GLOO tee us MEE dee us)

Gluteus maximus Hamstrings

(GLOO tee us MAX ah mus)

Achilles tendon
Gastrocnemius
(gas trock nee mee us)
The end……….

Prepared By:
Stefan Paul U. Balani, RMT