Bryman’s Social Research Methods 6e

Chapter 8: Sampling in quantitative research

 What is sampling?

• The process of selecting individuals to participate in

our research

• Selecting a sub-set of the population which is smaller

than and (ideally) representative of the bigger whole

Section 8.1: What is sampling?

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Basic terms and concepts in sampling
Term Definition
Population The universe of units from which the
sample is to be selected
Sample The segment of the population that is
selected for investigation
Sampling List of all eligible units
frame
Representativ A sample that reflects the population
e sample accurately
Sampling bias A distortion of the representativeness of
the sample

Section 8.1: What is sampling?

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 Basic terms and concepts in sampling
Term Definition
Probability sample Sample selected using random selection
Non-probability Sample selected not using random selection
sample
Sampling error Difference between sample and population
Non-sampling Error in research findings as a result of sampling
error approaches, or from problems in the design or
collection of the data
Non-response When members of sample are unable or refuse to
take part
Census Data collected from entire population

Section 8.1: What is sampling?

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 Weighting
• Statistical adjustment

• Used to address bias and improve

accuracy

• Weights greater than 1 are applied for

groups which are under-represented

• Weights smaller than 1 are applied for

groups which are over-represented
Section 8.1: What is sampling?

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 Types of probability sampling
Type of sampling Definition

Simple random Each unit has an equal and known probability of

being selected from the sampling frame
Systematic Every nth unit is selected from the sampling frame

Stratified Units are organized into groups (strata) and random

samples are taken
Multi-stage cluster Population is divided into clusters which are
randomly sampled. Sub-clusters can then be
sampled and then units

Section 8.4 Probability sampling

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 The qualities of a probability sample
• Representative – allows for generalization from sample
to population

• Sample means can be used to estimate population

means

• Standard error (SE): estimate of discrepancy between

sample mean and population mean

• 95% of sample means fall between +/- 1.96 SE from

population mean Section 8.4 Probability sampling

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 Types of non-probability samples
Type of sampling Definition

Convenience The most easily accessible participants

Snowball Researcher initially makes contact with a small

group of participants and establishes further
contacts through this initial group
Purposive Selecting units that best fit the requirements
of the study
Quota Researchers select to fit their quota for each
category

Section 8.5 Types of non-probability samples

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 Sample size

• Increasing sample size is

likely to increase precision

• Gains in precision become

less noticeable after you
reach a certain sample size

Section 8.6 Sample size

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 Non-response

Unit non-response
• When a participant refuses to, or is unable to respond

Item non-response
• When a participant refuses (either deliberately or
accidentally) to respond to a specific item or question

Section 8.6 Sample size

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 Non-response

Response rate:

number of usable questionnaires

 100
total sample  unsuitable or uncontactable members of the sample

Section 8.6 Sample size

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What factors impact on sample size?

Time and cost

The heterogeneity of the population

The kind of analysis

Section 8.6 Sample size

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 Sampling issues in online surveys

• More than 1 email address

• Device used by multiple people

• Biased sample

• Few sampling frames

Section 8.7 Sampling issues in online surveys

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 Social media and sampling
Benefits Limitations
Reduced costs Requires internet access
to participate
Shorter recruitment Bias – young, white
period women overrepresented
Reach hard to access
populations

Section 8.7 Sampling issues in online surveys

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Boosting online survey response rates

• Contact participants
beforehand

• Follow up non-responders

• Incentivize participants

Section 8.7 Sampling issues in online surveys

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 Limits to generalization

Findings can only be generalized to the population

from which the sample was selected
– Be wary of over-generalizing in terms of locality

Section 8.8 Limits to generalization

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 Error in survey research and the role of
sampling
Sampling error
• Arises because it is extremely unlikely that a fully representative
sample will be used, even with probability sampling

Data collection error

• Arises because of an error in the design of the data collection
instrument and because of flaws in using the research instrument

Data processing error

• Arises because of issues in the way the data is managed – inputted
and coded
Section 8.9 Error in survey research and the role of sampling

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