History of Ethiopia & the Horn (Hist.

1102)

UNIT TWO

PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND

THE HORN
2.1. Human Evolution
A. Biological Evolution
Evolution is a process and gradual change in species over time.

These changes are accumulated and passed through genes.

Some mammal primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla,
chimpanzee, etc.) while others evolved into Hominidae (human
ancestors) through natural process after 170 million years.
Archaeological evidences suggest that East African Rift Valley is
a cradle of humanity.
Examples of fossils discovered in Ethiopia (name of the fossil,
age, place & age of discovery):
* Chororapithecus- 10 million B. P., Anchar/West Hararghe, 2007.
Cont…
 Ardipithicus ramidus- 4. 2 million B.P., Aramis in Afar, 1994.
 Australopithecus afarensis, Selam- 3.3 million years B.P, Dikika, Mille
(Afar),2000.
 Australopithecus Afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh)- c. 3.18 million years B. P.),
Hadar (Afar) in 1974 A. D. Lucy was bipedal.
 Australopithecus garhi-2.5 million B.P., at Bouri, Middle Awash B/N 1996 and
1999.
 Australopithecus anamensis was discovered around Lake Turkana.
Genus Homo-
-result of the development of human brain.
-emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P.
Fossils of Genus Homo discovered in Ethiopia and the Horn include:
i. Homo Habilis
-derived from Latin terms "Homo" (human
being) and "Habilis" (skillful use of hands).
-dated 1.9 million years B. P.
-has been found in the Lower Omo Valley.
Cont…
ii. Homo erectus- walking upright
-dated 1.6 million years B. P.
-invented fire and started burial practice.
-discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso, Gardula and Gadeb.
- originated in Africa; then spread out to the rest of the world.
iii. Homo sapiens - knowledgeable human being
Archaic Homo Sapiens dated 400, 000 years B.P.).
Homo sapiens idaltu- 160, 000 years B.P
Homo Sapiens Sapiens- 100, 000 years B.P.
Lower Omo and Middle Awash valleys are the major
centers of human evolution in Ethiopia.
Many fossils were discovered there.
Cont…
B. Cultural Evolution
is related to technological changes that brought socio-
economic transformation on human life.
grouped in to Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.
 Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed
by human beings.
 By taking their features, ways and period of production,
stone tools can be grouped into:
#Mode I (Olduwan)-were crude and mono-facial.
- made and used by homo habilis.
- produced by the direct percussion.
- dated 2.52 million years B.P.
- Recent research traces to 3.1m years B.P
Cont…
#Mode II (Acheulean)
-were bifacial
-invented by homo erectus
-dated back to 1.7.million years B.P.
-produced by indirect percussion, hammering.
#Mode III (Sangoon)
-flexible and finest tools were made.
-produced by homo sapiens
-Sangoon (named after Sango Bay in Uganda).
-it was first discerned in 1920).
Cont….
The period of usage of stone tools is divided into sub-periods:
Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic.
Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)-3.4 million to 11, 000 B. P.
 an age when human being developed language.
 a period when mankind sheltered in cave.
 used stone, bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food
and clothing.
 Sex-age labor division of labor began where:
◦ able-bodied males as hunters of fauna
◦ children and females as gatherers of flora.
 Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age )-11, 000-10,000 B. P.
 was transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic.
Note: The oldest evidence of stone tool in the world) was found at
Dikika in 2010.
2.2. Neolithic (New Stone Age)
Revolution: 10, 000-6, 000 B.P.
Domestication was great feature of Neolithic revolution.
Domestication of plants and animals due to:
◦ Declining number of animals and availability of plants.
◦ Awareness of growing cycle of most of grass types.
Domestication transformed mankind from mobile to
sedentary way of life.
The process of domestication took place independently in
the various parts of the world, including Eth. and the Horn.
People of Ethiopia and the Horn domesticated Teff
(Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia
abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum/edule), etc.
Cont…
Sites (places) of the domestication of plants and animals in
Africa Horn include:
- Emba-Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray
-Aqordat and Barentu in Eritsrea
-The Gobedra near Aksum
- Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana
- Laga Oda near Charchar
- Lake Basaqa near Matahara
-Playa Napata and Kado in the Sudan
-Cyrenaica in Libya
-Futajalon in West Africa
 Cont…
 Consequence of the commencing of farming
(agricultural revolution)
Formation of state
Evolution of cities and towns
Formation of complex society
Division of labor
Surplus production and trade exchange
Technological development
Sedentary life
2.3 The Peopling of the Region
2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes
Ethiopia and the Horn is marked by ethnic and linguistic
diversity.
Beneath this apparent diversity, there is some degree of
unity.
Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into
Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan language super families.
 Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into
Cushitic, Semitic and Omotic language families.
Nilo-Saharan in turn is classified into Chari-Nile and
Koman language families.
Cont…
Language status and classification did not remain
static for it is affected by several factors.
Factors like population movements, warfare, trade,
religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc.
have affected languages (some died out or in danger
of extinction, others thrived).

Which languages due you think are extinct, in

danger of extinction, recovering, or thriving?
Discuss in group and mention some of them.
2.3.2. Settlement Patterns
 Settlement pattern is shaped by environmental, socio-economic,
and political processes.
 Studies indicate that environmental, socio-economic, and
political processes significantly shaped and reshaped the spatial
distribution of peoples in the region.
#Cushites-Red Sea in the East to the Blue Nile in the West.
They evolved to be the largest linguistic group in the region.
They spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania.
#Semites-settled in the northern, north central, northeastern, south
central and eastern part.
#Omotic Peoples- majority south western Ethiopia along Omo
River except Shinasha & Anfillo.
#Nilotes-mainly found along Ethio-Sudanese border.
Some section of it inhabited as far as southern Omo.
2.3.3. Economic Formations
The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two
interdependent modes of life: agriculture and pastoralism.
Fishing, handicraft, trade, etc. other economic activities in
different parts.
People in the highland area mainly sedentary agriculture or
mixed farming.
Such economic formation is known since 10, 000 years
It has been practiced by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic
people.
-eastern lowland= mainly pastoralism
-western lowlands= pastoralism, shifting
agriculture, fishing, apiculture and hunting.
Both highlanders and lowland population have depended on
2.4 Religion and Religious Processes
2.4.1. Indigenous Religion
Indigenous religious are beliefs and practices, which:
◦ are native to the region.
◦ have been practiced since ancient times.
A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is:
◦ belief in one Supreme Being.
◦ attribution of special power to natural phenomena.
 Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of one
Supreme Being called Waqa.
Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called
Ayyana.
The are several major spirits based on Waqeffanna. Exa.,
Cont…

◦ Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit)

◦ Atete (fertility spirit)
◦ Balas (victory spirit)
◦ Chato/Dora (wild animals defender)
There is also a belief that the dead exist in the form of a
ghost called Ekera in the surrounding of his/her abode
before death.
There is thanks giving festival called Irrecha besides New
Year (Birbo) rite.
Qallu and Qallitti (female) have maintained link between
the Ayyana and the believers.
Qallu ritual house is called Galma.
Cont…
The Jila/Makkala (delegated messengers) used to make
pilgrimage to get consecration of senior qallu (Abba Muda).
Abba Muda had turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at top,
red at center and white at bottom.
 Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa,
whose eyes are represented by elincho (sun) and agana
(moon).
 Spirits like Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard)
attracted prayers sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo
mountains.
 Itto and Albaja were well-known spiritual leaders credited
to introduce Fandancho.
Cont…
 Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God.
Religious officials known as Magnancho.
 The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno and had
thanks giving ceremony called Deraro.
 Konso religion centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh.
 The Gojjam Agew call the Supreme Being Diban whom
they believed is Sky God.
 Among sections of the Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita
(Supreme Being), Bozha (thunder deity) and Damwamwit
(health goddess).
 Gurage and Yem had a common deity known as Abba at
Enar (Henar).
Cont…

 The Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God).

 So’ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties as
it was in charge of Shashokam (the most vital deity).
 The Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho.
 Wolayta called their God Tosa and their spirit Ayyana.
Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit), Micho (goat
spirit), Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit).
Dufuwa (grave) was believed to be abode of Moytiliya
(father’s spirit).
Annual worship of spirits was performed at a sacred place
called Mitta.
sacrifice of the first fruits called Teramo or Pageta
(Dubusha) offered there.
Cont…
The Wolayta also had the practice of Chaganna (prohibited
days to work).
They also chose and kept dark brown heifer called Beka
(Literally, ritual cattle) as birthday fate.
Religious practitioners known as Sharechuwa had Becha or
Kera Eza Keta (ritual house).
 Keficho’s Supreme Being isYero and the spirit Eqo.
A person who hosts Eqo is known as Alamo or eke-nayo.

Father of all spirits dochi sat at Adiyo.

There are local spirits like damochechi of Channa,
yaferochi of Sharada and wogidochi of Adio.
Members of the Dugo clan led spiritual services.
Cont…
 Boro-Shinasha people believe in super natural power Iqa.
 Rituals performed through slaughtering animals.
 Gure Shuka was one of public prayer rituals.
 The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven).
 Rain, lightning thunder, rainbow, sun, moon and other entities
are manifestations or signs of God.
 When a person dies soul departs together with ox sacrificed to
place of ghosts.
Cont….
• The indigenous religion elements prescribe praying for
the prevention of:
 drought, flooding, erosion,
 disease and starvation within the community and their
surroundings.
• Rituals are led by recognized elders, whose pray and bless
are trusted to reach God.
• Practices and beliefs of indigenous religion are fused with
Christianity and Islam.
• This phenomenon of mixing of religions is known as
syncretism.
2.4.2. Judaism
Judaism has been followed in Ethiopia and the Horn.
clearly noticed in the 4th c AD, when the Bete-Israel refused
to be converted to Christianity.
The Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot that differs from
Rabbinic Judaism.
It is better see traditions regarding the origin of Bete-Israel,
one of the ancient peoples in Ethiopia and the Horn.
Some portion of the Tribe of Dan migrated to Ethiopia at
the time of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.)
The crisis after the death of King Solomon (r. 974-932
B.C.) was followed by Israel or Babylonian exile.
Return to Ethiopia of Menilek I, believed to be son of
Solomon and Makeda, Queen of Saba.
Cont…
Led by Azonos and Phinhas, Jews arrived in Ethiopia in 6th
century A.D.
Jewish immigrants intermarried with the Agaws and are
today known as Bete-Israel.
The Jews appear to have been isolated from mainstream
Jewish for at least a millennium.
They developed and lived for centuries in northern and
northwestern Ethiopia.
2.4.3. Christianity
Before the introduction of Christianity, people in northern part
of historic Ethiopia were polytheists. They believed gods
such as,
Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god),
Arwe (serpent-python god),
Bahir (sea god) and
Midir (earth god)
 Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frementius converted King
Ezana (r. 320-360) into Christianity.
 Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D.
Patriarch Atnatewos of Alexandria (328-373) consecrated
Frementius as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox
Cont…
In 1959, Abune Baslios was anointed the first Ethiopian Patriarch.
Christianity expanded to the interior of the state by the Nine
Saints who came from the Mediterranean world
The saints translated the bible into Geez and founded monasteries.
Then expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-
1270).
It got fresh momentum during the early Medieval Period (1270-
1527)
Churches and monasteries served as repositories of manuscripts
and precious objects of art.
Jesuits tried to convert Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic.
Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies within EOC.
Cont…
Both Catholic and Protestant missionaries preached their
respective treaties in Ethiopia and the Horn.
Protestants, particularly, were systematic in preaching their
faith in the region.
They adopted old names for Supreme Being and used them
as equivalent to God.
They established schools open to all children of chiefs and
farmers.
2.3.4. Islam

 Prophet Mohammed had preached Islam in Mecca since

610 AD.
 The prophet faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers.
 He sent some of his early followers to Aksum.
 Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash),
gave the refugees asylum from 615-628 A.D.
 Islam spread to the Horn of Africa through peaceful ways
including trade.
 Muslims settled on the Red Sea coasts.
 It was from the coast that Islam spread among communities
of the interior, largely through the agency of preachers and
merchants.
Cont…
 Notwithstanding the debates, the Dahlak route played a
minor role in introduction of Islam into the interior.
 The port of Zeila on western coast of Gulf of Aden served
as the most important gateway.
 From the coasts of the Red Sea and the Gulf of den, Islam
radiated to central, southern, and eastern Ethiopia.
A Muslim saint Sheikh Hussein of Bale spread Islam into
Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the
Horn.
Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the 8th c AD.
through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca.
 Cont…
 Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up
Moqadishu Minirate c.1269.
Mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers
have been the depositories of cultures, traditions and
literature of local Muslims.

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