Carrier Sense Multiple Access

(CSMA)

most notably in early Ethernet technology

for local area networking
used in CSMA/CA systems including Wi-Fi and
other packet radio systems.
2
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) is a network protocol for
carrier transmission that operates in the Medium Access Control
(MAC) layer.
 It senses or listens whether the shared channel for transmission is
busy or not, and transmits if the channel is not busy.
 Using CSMA protocols, more than one users or nodes send and
receive data through a shared medium that may be a single cable
or optical fiber connecting multiple nodes, or a portion of the
wireless spectrum.
 Carrier Sense multiple access requires that each station first
check the state of the medium before sending. 
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
Working Principle
When a station has frames to transmit, it attempts to detect presence
of the carrier signal from the other nodes connected to the shared
channel.

If a carrier signal is detected, it implies that a transmission is in

progress.

The station waits till the ongoing transmission executes to

completion, and then initiates its own transmission.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
Working Principle
 Generally, transmissions by the node are received by all other
nodes connected to the channel.

 Since, the nodes detect for a transmission before sending their own
frames, collision of frames is reduced.

 However, if two nodes detect an idle channel at the same time,

they may simultaneously initiate transmission.

 This would cause the frames to garble resulting in a collision.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

CSMA Access Modes

The versions of CMSA access modes are−
Types of CSMA Access Modes:

1. Persistent: 

It senses the shared channel first and delivers the data right
away if the channel is idle. If not, it must wait
and continuously track for the channel to become idle and then
broadcast the frame without condition as soon as it does.

It is an aggressive transmission algorithm.

Types of CSMA Access Modes:

2. Non-Persistent:  

It first assesses the channel before transmitting data;

if the channel is idle, the node transmits data right away.
If not, the station must wait for an arbitrary amount of time
(not continuously), and when it discovers the channel is
empty, it sends the frames.
Types of CSMA Access Modes:

3. P-Persistent: 
It consists of the Persistent and Non-Persistent modes combined.

Each node observes the channel in the P-Persistent mode, and if

the channel is idle, it sends a frame with a P probability.

If the data is not transferred, the frame restarts with the

following time slot after waiting for a (q = 1-p probability)
random period.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

Variations of CSMA protocol

There may be further additions to the basic CSMA protocols. This
results is the various protocols as follows−
CSMA with Collision Resolution
CSMA/CR uses priorities in the frame header to avoid collisions.
It is used in the Controller Area Network.

Virtual time CSMA

VTCSMA is designed to avoid collision generated by nodes
transmitting signals simultaneously, used mostly in hard real-time
systems. It uses two clocks to prioritize messages based on their
deadline.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
1. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD):
In this method, a station monitors the medium after it sends a frame
to see if the transmission was successful. If successful, the
transmission is finished, if not, the frame is sent again. 
In the diagram, A starts sending the first bit of its frame at t1 and
since C sees the channel idle at t2, starts sending its frame at t2. C
detects A’s frame at t3 and aborts transmission.
A detects C’s frame at t4 and aborts its transmission. Transmission
time for C’s frame is, therefore, t3-t2 and for A’s frame is t4-t1          
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
2. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA) – Why CSMA/CA?

 The basic idea behind CSMA/CA is that the station should be able
to receive while transmitting to detect a collision from different
stations.
 In wired networks, if a collision has occurred then the energy of
the received signal almost doubles, and the station can sense the
possibility of collision.
 In the case of wireless networks, most of the energy is used for
transmission, and the energy of the received signal increases by
only 5-10% if a collision occurs.
 It can’t be used by the station to sense collision.
Therefore CSMA/CA has been specially designed for wireless
networks. 
2. Carrier Sense
Multiple Access
with Collision
Avoidance
(CSMA/CA)
Advantages of CSMA:

1.Increased efficiency: CSMA ensures that only one device

communicates on the network at a time, reducing collisions and
improving network efficiency.

2.Simplicity: CSMA is a simple protocol that is easy to implement

and does not require complex hardware or software.

3.Flexibility: CSMA is a flexible protocol that can be used in a wide

range of network environments, including wired and wireless
networks.

4.Low cost: CSMA does not require expensive hardware or software,

making it a cost-effective solution for network communication.
Disadvantages of CSMA:

1.Limited scalability: CSMA is not a scalable protocol and can

become inefficient as the number of devices on the network
increases.

2.Delay: In busy networks, the requirement to sense the medium and

wait for an available channel can result in delays and increased
latency.

3.Limited reliability: CSMA can be affected by interference, noise,

and other factors, resulting in unreliable communication.

4.Vulnerability to attacks: CSMA can be vulnerable to certain

types of attacks, such as jamming and denial-of-service attacks,
which can disrupt network communication.
Orthogonal Frequency-Division
Multiplexing (OFDM)

22
 What does Orthogonal means?

Orthogonal means “perpendicular.” The word orthogonal is

a math term that refers to something at a 90-degree angle
to something else. 

In math, you can use orthogonal to refer to a set of vectors

that are at right angles to each other. It’s also used in physics
and engineering to describe something perpendicular to
another.

Orthogonal means that two things are independent of each

other = parallel.
 Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

 The OFDM practices the similar rule as of FDM wherever many

messages unit to be sent through one radio channel in associate
unionized manner.
 All the carriers unit
orthogonally formed
by the frequency gap
in addition to time
synchronization.
 These carriers are
generated as they are
doing not conclude up
to interference within
the frequency
spectrum.
Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a
type of digital transmission used in digital modulation for
encoding digital (binary) data on multiple carrier frequencies.

OFDM has developed into a popular scheme for wideband 

digital communication, used in applications such as digital
television and audio broadcasting, DSL internet access, 
wireless networks, power line networks, and 4G/5G mobile
communications.
 Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
Working Principle
 In OFDM, the incoming bitstream representing the data to be
sent is divided into multiple streams.
 Multiple closely spaced orthogonal subcarrier signals with
overlapping spectra are transmitted, with each carrier 
modulated with bits from the incoming stream so multiple bits
are being transmitted in parallel.
 OFDM was improved with the introduction of a guard interval,
providing better orthogonality in transmission channels
affected by multipath propagation. 
 Each subcarrier (signal) is modulated with a conventional
modulation scheme (such as 
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) or phase-shift keying
(PSK)) at a low symbol rate.
 Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
Main Advantage:
 It has ability to cope with severe channel conditions (for
example, attenuation of high frequencies in a long copper wire,
narrowband interference and frequency-selective fading due to 
multipath) without the need for complex equalization filters.

 Channel equalization is simplified because OFDM may be

viewed as using many slowly modulated narrowband signals
rather than one rapidly modulated wideband signal.
Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
Applications:

Wired
•ADSL and VDSL broadband access via POTS copper wiring

•Digital Video Broadcasting DVB-C2, an enhanced version

of the DVB-C digital cable TV standard

•Power line communication (PLC)

•ITU-T G.hn, a standard which provides high-speed local area

networking of existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines
and coaxial cables)

•Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA) home networking or

IP television in homes using existing cabling
Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
Applications:

Wireless
•The wireless LAN (WLAN) radio interfaces IEEE 802.11a, g, 
n, ac, ah

•The digital radio systems DAB/EUREKA 147, DAB+, 

Digital Radio Mondiale, HD Radio, T-DMB and ISDB-TSB

•The terrestrial digital TV systems DVB-T and ISDB-T

•The terrestrial mobile TV systems DVB-H, T-DMB, ISDB-T

 and MediaFLO forward link
Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
Applications:

Wireless
The OFDM-based multiple access technology OFDMA is also used in
several 4G and pre-4G cellular networks, mobile broadband standards
and the next generation WLAN:

•The mobility mode of the wireless MAN/broadband wireless

access (BWA) standard IEEE 802.16e (or Mobile-WiMAX)

•The mobile broadband wireless access (MBWA) standard IEEE 802.20

•The downlink of the  3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) Long

Term Evolution (LTE) fourth generation mobile broadband standard.

•WLAN IEEE 802.11ax
Add-ons…
Space-division multiple access (SDMA) is a channel
access method based on creating parallel spatial pipes
(focused signal beams) using advanced antenna technology

33
 Multiple-Input and Multiple-Output (MIMO)

 MIMO (multiple input, multiple output) is an antenna

technology for wireless communications in which
multiple antennas are used at both the source
(transmitter) and the destination (receiver).
 The antennas at each end of the communications circuit
are combined enabling data to travel over many signal
paths at the same time.
Thank you.