Research Design

Research Design
• Research design "provides the glue” that holds the research project together.
It is the "backbone" of the research protocol.
• A design is used to structure the research, to show how all of the major parts
of the research project work together to try to address the central research
questions.“
• The research design is like a recipe. Just as a recipe provides a list of

ingredients and the instructions for preparing a dish, the research design
provides the components and the plan for successfully carrying out the study.
Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 1

Types of Research Applied research refers to scientific study and that seeks to
Basic research (fundamental or pure) solve practical problems.
Is driven by a scientist curiosity or interest in a scientific question. It is used to find solution to everyday problems, cure illness,
The main motivation is to expand man’s knowledge, not to create and develop innovating technologies, rather than just to gain
or invent something. knowledge.
Investigation and analysis focused on a better or fuller For example, it may investigate ways to:
understanding of a subject, phenomenon, or a basic law of Improve agricultural crop production.
nature . Treat or cure a specific disease.
There is no obvious commercial value to the discovery of basic Improve the energy efficiency of transportation.
research. Uses of applied and basic researches
Basic research is explanatory, universal and analytical in nature. Applied research is useful for finding practical solutions to
For example, basic science aims to answers questions such as: defined problems.
How did the universe begin? while basic research is useful for gathering novel information
What are protons, electrons composed of? about a concept, phenomenon or field of study.
How does the human memory work? In other words, basic research is theory-oriented, applied
A research to discover the components of the human DNA. research is practical-oriented.
An investigation into the symptoms of Coronavirus.
An investigation into the causative factors of malaria. The type of research may vary on the basis of the level at
which research is carried out and its purpose.
One can choose basic research over applied research when th
purpose is to add certain scientific knowledge.
When it is important to identify a proper solution to the
problem under study , applied research is preferable.
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How To Choose A Research Method
• First we look at an overall flowchart or schematic of the entire research
design and analysis process.
• Next, we spend some time focusing on research questions or problem.

• This we call the "heart & soul" of the whole process (It Starts with a
Question).
• We further focus in some important components of these research.

Namely, variables and hypotheses .

Types of research

Correlation study
Correlational Study
Positive
Correlation
Negative
Correlation
No Correlation

Correlation study
• A correlation is simply defined as a relationship between two variables.
• The whole purpose of using correlations in research is to figure out which variables are
connected.
• This simple definition is the basis of several statistical tests that result in a correlation
coefficient, defined as a numerical representation of the strength and direction of a relationship.
• Correlation research is looking for variables that seem to interact with each other, so that when
you can see one changing, you have an idea of how the other will change.

Correlation study
• For example, to test the hypothesis "Listening to music lowers blood pressures levels”
• There are 2 ways of conducting research
• Experimental (By group samples) .

making one group listen to music and then compare their blood pressures levels before
and after listening to the music.
• Survey. By asking people
• How they feel? How often they listen ?and then compare between them according to
their feelings and the period of listening.

Correlation does not indicate causation

Difference between correlation and experimental Research
• Correlational research is the observation of two variables to see if there is a

relation between them, being positive or negative.
• Experimental research is the observation between an introduced variable the

independent variable--under controlled environments and its resulting factor the
dependent variable.

Correlational Study
1. Positive correlation:
• Positive correlation between two variables is when an increase in one variable leads to
an increase in the other and a decrease in one leads to a decrease in the other.
• For example, the amount of money that a person possesses might correlate positively
with the number of cars he owns.

Correlational Study
2. Negative correlation:
• Negative correlation is when an increase in one variable leads to a decrease in another

and vice versa.
• For example, the level of education might correlate negatively with crime.
• This means if by some way the education level is improved in a country, it can lead to
lower crime.

Correlational Study
3. No correlation:
• Two variables are uncorrelated when a change in one doesn't lead to a change in the
other and vice versa.
• For example, among millionaires, happiness is found to be uncorrelated to money. This

means an increase in money doesn't lead to happiness

Correlational Study
• A correlational research study uses what is called the “correlation coefficient” to measure
the strength of the relationship between the variables.
• It can range from 1.00 to -1.00. These figures create three potential definition outcomes for
the work being performed.
• A positive correlation shows that both variables increase or decrease simultaneously.
• A coefficient that approaches 1.00 indicates the strongest correlation for this result.
• A negative correlation indicates that when one variable increases, the other will decrease.
• When the coefficient approaches -1.00, then this is the expected result.
• If the coefficient is zero, then this result indicates that there is no correlation between the
two variable

Correlation study
• Advantages:
• Can collect much information from many subjects at one time.
• Can study a wide rang of variables and their interrelations.
• Study variables that are not easily produced in the laboratory.
• Disadvantages:
• Correlation does not indicate causation(cause and effect). which mean that just because
two things correlate does not necessarily mean that one causes the other.

Descriptive Research
• Descriptive study defined as "Any study that is not truly experimental.
• In human research, a descriptive study can provide information about the naturally
occurring health status, behavior, attitudes or other characteristics of a particular
group.
• Descriptive studies are also conducted to demonstrate relationships between things

in the world around you.

When to use a descriptive research design
• Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify

characteristics, frequencies, trends, correlations, and categories.
• It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem.
• Before you can research why something happens, you need to understand how, when
and where it happens.

• Descriptive research cannot describe what caused a situation.
• Thus, descriptive research cannot be used as the basis of a causal relationship, where
one variable affects another.
• In other words, descriptive research can be said to have a low requirement for internal
validity.
• The description is used for frequencies ,averages and other statistical calculations.

• Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon

being studied.
• It is also known as statistical research.
• It deals with everything that can be counted and studied, which has an impact of the lives
of the people it deals with.
• It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred.
• Rather it addresses the "what" question only.

• For example:
The periodic table categorizes the elements.
Scientists use knowledge about the nature of electrons, protons and neutrons to devise
this categorical scheme.
We now take for granted the periodic table, yet it took descriptive research to devise it.
Descriptive research generally precedes explanatory research.
For example, over time the periodic table's description of the elements allowed scientists
to explain chemical reaction and make sound prediction when elements were combined.

• Another example:
• Finding the most frequent diseases that affects the children of a town .
The reader of the research will be able to knew what to do to prevent that disease.
this give a chance for more people to live a healthy life.

• Descriptive research often has the aim of description and the researchers may follow-
up with examinations of why the observations exist and what the implications of the
findings are
• The most common descriptive research method is the survey.
• Descriptive research generates data, both qualitative and quantitative, that define

the state of nature at a point in time.

• The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are

valid and reliable.
• The useful methods to collect the data are:
• Survey which includes
questionnaires, personal interviews, phone surveys, and internet surveys.
• Observation
• Case study

• Advantages
• It is less expensive and time consuming than quantitative experiments.
• Collect a large amount of notes for detailed studying.
• Disadvantages
• Requires more skills.
• Does not identify cause behind a phenomenon.
• Results of this research can change over the period of time

Experimental study
• Experimental research is the most familiar type of research design for
individuals in the physical sciences and a host of other fields.
• This is mainly because experimental research is a classical scientific

experiment, similar to those performed in high school science classes.

Experimental study
• This is an experiment where the researcher manipulates one variable, and control the
rest of the variables.
• An experiment is a method of applying treatment to a group and recordering the effect.
• The subjects have been randomly assigned between the groups , and the researcher only
tests one effect at a time.
• A good group experiment will have two basic elements:

• A control and a treatment

Experimental study
• If a sample of patients is randomly divided into three groups, with the first group
receiving a high dosage of the drug , the second group receiving a low dosage, and the
third group receives a placebo such as a sugar pill (control group), then the first two
groups are experimental groups and the third group is a control group.
• After administering the drug for a period of time, if the condition of the experimental
group subjects improved significantly more than the control group subjects, we can say
that the drug is effective.
• We can also compare the conditions of the high and low dosage experimental groups to
determine if the high dose is more effective than the low dose.

Experimental study

Experimental study
An experimental design must deal with four issues:
1) The people who participate in the experiment.

2) The independent variable or variables, which are also called the
treatment variables. These are the variables the researchers controls
during the experiment.
3) The dependent variable, or the effect that the researchers measure.
4) The plan for controlling extraneous variables.

Experimental study
• Extraneous variables are all variables, which are not the independent variable,

but could affect the results of the experiment.
• The researcher wants to make sure that it is the manipulation of the
independent variable that has an effect on the dependent variable.
• Extraneous variables could include prior knowledge of statistics; you would have
to make sure that group A roughly matched group B with prior knowledge before
starting the study.
• Other extraneous variables could include amount of support in the home, socio-
economic income, or temperature of the testing room.

Experimental study
• Experimental controls
• Are techniques that researchers utilize to minimize the effects of
extraneous factors and environmental variables.
• Also to strengthen the conclusion and results that changes in the
dependent variable according to the independent variable

Ex Post Facto Research
1)Ex post facto is a Latin phrase that essentially means "retroactive," or affecting something that's
already happened.
2)An ex post facto research design is a method in which groups with qualities that already exist are
compared on some dependent variable.
3)It involves no manipulation of independent variables.
4)Also known as "after the fact" research, an ex post facto design is considered semi-experimental
because the subjects are not randomly assigned.
5)Researcher cannot manipulate some variables and therefore selects participants that have certain
values for those variables by themselves (gender, weight ,illness ).

Ex Post Facto Research
• For example, a researcher is interested in how weight influences (self-confidence levels)

in adults.
• The assignment of subjects to different groups is based on any variable is of interest to the researchers.
• So the participants would be separated into differing groups (underweight, normal weight, overweight)
and their self confidence levels measured.
• This is an ex post facto design because a pre-existing characteristic (weight) was used to form the
groups.

Historical Method Of Research
The historical method of research applies to all field of study because it
include:
• Origin, growth, theories, personalities, crisis, etc.
• Both qualitative and quantitative variables can be used in the collection of

historical information.
• Depends upon data observed by others rather than investigator.

• Historical methods of research are the process of systematically examining
Past events to draw conclusions and make predictions about the future.
• One of the goals of historical research is to communicating of past events.
• The steps of historical research are: formulate an idea , formulate a plan,

gather data and analyze the source of data.

• Typically relies on available data which are in form of diaries, letters,
newspaper, reports and so on.
• It covers categories such as:
historical ,legal, documentary , bibliographical ,biographical
institutional ,industrial and organizational.

• 1-first step : data collection
• 2-second step : criticism of the data
• 3-third step : presentation of the facts

• Strengths
• Provides a comprehensive picture of historical trends.
• Uses existing information.
• Provides evidence of on-going trends and problems
• Limitations
Time –consuming
Resources may be hard to locate and conflicting.
Information may be incomplete or inaccurate.
Data restricted to what already exist.

• What is a research proposal?
• Why a research proposal?

Outline
• What are the basic elements of a
research proposal?
• What are the common mistakes in

proposal writing?
What is a • A detailed plan of action for scientific question.
Research • what the researcher intends to do, how, why,
where, and when
Proposal
Research proposal
Writing a research proposal is both science and art
A good research proposal is based on scientific facts and on the art of clear
communication .
Writing a formal research proposal should be started by the time one has decided on
the topic for the study

Why a Research Proposal
• An important documentation of your approach to the research
question/objectives
• Demonstrate researcher abilities.
• Needed document for research committees and funding agencies
approval

What are the basic elements for a research
proposal?
(Research question and research methodology)
Title
Statement of the problem, QUESTION
Formulation of objectives
Basic elements for
Suggest a hypothesis
a research proposal
Research methodology
Literature review
Research significant and contribution
Utilization & briefing of results
Work plan
Resources
Reject the following:
No goal or objective statement at the start of the

proposal.
Details of Too technical and complicated statistical will
make it hard to read and understand.
Research Too short will not give the reviewer the needed
Proposal information to understand the proposal.
Too long will make the reviewer skip to the
background and makes the reviewer search for
what is important.
The problem statement
Statement of the describes the importance of the
Problem study and it also identifies the
general analysis approach .
• Magnitude, frequency and distribution:
Affected geographical areas and population
groups affected by the problem.
Logical Sequence of • Ethnic and gender considerations.
Presenting Problem • Probable causes of the problem:
Statement What is the current knowledge of the problem
and its causes?
Is there general agreement?
Is there any argument?
Possible solutions:
In what ways have solutions to the problem been
attempted?.
Logical Sequence of What has been proposed? What are the results?
Presenting Problem • Unanswered questions:
Statement
What remains to be answered?
What areas have not been possible to
understand, determine, verify, or test?
Objective
This is a very important and critical section and everything else in the study is centered around it.
The objective of the proposed study should be stated very clearly .
The objective stated should be specific, achievable and measurable.
Importance of Research Objectives
To Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials).
To Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary
for understanding and solving the problem we have identified.
To Organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases.
Avoid too many objectives.
Even just one clearly stated relevant objective for a study would be good enough
If there is more than one objective the objectives can be presented in the appropriate order of importance
Formulation of Research Objectives
General objective:
states what researchers expect to achieve by the study in general terms.
Specific objectives:
smaller, logically connected parts of general objective.
They are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to study
Goals or Objectives of Research
• This is usually one paragraph telling the reviewer everything they need to know about this research proposal.
• This provides the opportunity to gain the reviewers interest and excitement about this proposal.
• It should contain the background on why this research is important.
Hypothesis, and objectives Should state the innovation of this proposal.
Hypothesis
Clearly state the hypothesis or number of hypotheses that will be addressed in the proposal.
Give a rationale why this hypothesis is important to investigate or reject.
Avoid combining the two together, It could be confusing to the reviewer.
Too long of a hypothesis makes it hard to understand the aim of the research.
Literature Review
The review of the literature provides the background and context for the research problem.
It should establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is knowledgeable about the area
• It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the study being reported
• It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature about a topic, filling in gaps and extending prior studies
It is a systematic, clearly expressed, and method for identifying, evaluating, and synthesizing the existing body of completed and
recorded work produced by researchers
• It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study, as well as a bench mark for comparing the results of a
study with other findings.
It frames the problem and identified the gabs.
The methods or procedures section is really the heart of the research proposal.
The activities should be described with as much detail as possible, and the continuity between them should be apparent
• Sampling
• Instrumentation
Research • Data collection
Methodology • Data analysis
• Ethical
Sampling
• The key reason for being concerned with

sampling is that of validity.
Sampling, or the selection of a subset of
data units from a larger population,
influences the validity of a given finding
when researchers attempt to generalize
from their sample to a larger population.
.
Outline the instruments you propose to use
surveys– scales– interview protocols–

Instrumentation observation.
Outline the general plan for collection the

data
What are the common mistakes in proposal writing?
Failure to
Provide the proper context to frame the research question.
Cite landmark studies.
Accurately present the theoretical and empirical contributions by other researchers.
Stay focused on the research question
Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument.
Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues .
Too many citation mistakes and in correct references.
Avoid the following criticisms :
• Not an original data
• Rationale is weak
What are the common
mistakes in proposal
writing? • Uncertain outcomes
• Writing is vague
• Proposal is unfocused
• Problem is not important

Important parts in the proposal
A summary of existing work in the area
The proposed methods to collect data
The results that will be obtained
Researches
On a broader perspective, all researches can be classified into two groups
Qualitative Researchers/ Quantitative Researches
A choice between research methods rests fundamentally on a set of decisions about the questions a researcher wants to answer and
the practicality of gathering the kind of data that will answer those questions.
The first step is to look for an obvious fit.
Although there are a number of soft differences between the two types of methods, there is one very important distinction.
Quantitative research is deductive and hinges on the presence of a hypothesis, which is identified before research begins.
Qualitative research is inductive and does not require a hypothesis to start the research process.
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Qualitative vs Quantitative

Qualitative Research
• In statistics, qualitative data—sometimes referred to as
categorical data.
• It is data that can be arranged into categories based on physical
characters, gender, colors or anything that does not have a
number associated with it.
• Qualitative research is dealing with phenomenon that are
difficult or impossible to quantify mathematically such as
beliefs, meanings, attributes and symbols.

• Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research.

• It aim to gather in-depth understanding of human behavior and
the reasons that govern such behavior..
• It investigates the why and how of decision making ,not just
what, where and when.

• Some common methods include:

• Focus groups (group discussions).
• Individual interviews,
• and participation/observations.
The sample size is typically small, and individuals are selected to fulfil a given
quota.

Examples of qualitative data

• The hair colors of players on a football team,
• The color of cars in a parking place.
• The letter grades of students in a classroom.
• The types of coins in a jar.
• The shape of candies in a variety pack.
• All are examples of qualitative data as long as a particular number is not
assigned to any of these descriptions.
Characteristics Of Qualitative Research
• Ask broad, general questions.

• Collecting data consisting largely of words (text) or
images(pictures).
• Descriptions and analysis of words in sake of topics.
• Conducts questions in subjective, biased manner.
Advantages of Qualitative Research
Useful during the early stages of a study when the researcher may be unsure of exactly what will be studied or what to focus on.
• Does not need a strict design plan before it begins, which gives the freedom to let the study develop more naturally.
• Gains more detailed and rich data in the form of comprehensive written descriptions or visual evidence, such as photographs.
Disadvantages of Qualitative Research

It is not a statistically representative form of data collection. ...
It relies upon the experience of the researcher. ...
It can lose data. ...
It may require multiple sessions(time consuming). ...
It can be difficult to replicate results. ...
It can create misleading conclusions.
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Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data.
Or data that can be transformed into useable statistics.
It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables.
And generalize results from a larger sample population
Quantitative Research uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research.
Quantitative data collection methods are much more structured than Qualitative data collection methods.
It include various forms of surveys – online surveys, paper surveys, mobile surveys and face-to-face interviews, telephone
interviews, online polls, and systematic observations.

Types of Quantitative research
There are four main types of Quantitative research:
Descriptive,
Correlational,
Semi-Experimental (ex-post facto)
Experimental Research.
Advantages of Quantitative Research
• Allows the researcher to measure and analyze data.
• Relationship between an independent and dependent variable is studied in detail, which is advantageous because the
researcher is more objective about the findings of the research.
• Used to test hypotheses in experiments because of its ability to measure data using statistics
Disadvantages of Quantitative Research
A large sample of the population must be studied for more accurate results (n).
Difficulty setting up a research model.
Can be misleading.
results are limited as they provide numerical descriptions rather than detailed narrative and generally provide less elaborate
accounts of human perception.
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Quantitative Qualitative
Research Research
Structured Data Unstructured Data
Statistical Analysis Summary
Objective Subjective
Conclusions Conclusions
Interview, focus
Surveys, Experiments
groups, observations

Scientific Research
Methods, Skills & Steps

What is Research?
Research means the systematic enquiry to find out the truth.
It involves systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to answer a certain question or solve a problem.
“The formulation of a problem is often more essential than it’s solution,
which may be merely a matter of mathematical or experimental skill.
To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old questions from a new angle, requires creative imagination and marks real
advance in science” (Einstein 1938).
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What is Research?
Reporting
1.Planning
Collection
Analysis
of data

The fundamental obligations of research
1. Research must be conducted in accordance with human rights.
2. Research must be conducted in accordance with sustainable development and respect for the environment.
3. Research must promote peace.
4. Research must promote and take part in the development of democracy.
5. Research must promote greater global justice in the distribution of wealth through the spread of information.
Steps involved in research
Research design
Population and Sampling
Selection of Variables to study the objectives
Research tools to be used in the study
Pilot study
Selection of Study Area
Identification of the topic
Temporary research question
Refined research question after literature survey
Research hypotheses, goals and objectives
Work plan
Collection of data
Data Analysis
Interpretation
Reporting
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Keywords Objectives
Keywords are important words found in your research question or Objectives are the clear statements indicating what the
thesis. researcher wanted to answer at the end of the study.
A quick way to pull keywords from a research question/thesis is to The research problem becomes the broad objective of the
choose the most important nouns. study.
All other words are irrelevant. This can be divided into specific objectives.
Using keywords to search will always retrieve more results than At the end of the study, the researcher should be able to
phrases or sentences. satisfactorily answer the objectives of the study.
Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a temporary statement or assumption to be tested positive or negative that a research effort is designed to answer
When relationship between variables are not known, it is better to formulate the hypothesis and to be tested.
Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no reasonable difference in the variables being studied.
Alternate Hypothesis (H1): Opposite of null hypothesis. There is reasonable differences in the variables being studied.
- In quantitative research, there are two hypothesis statements.
One hypothesis is called the null hypothesis, or Ho.
A researcher does not expect the null hypothesis to be true.
At the conclusion of the research process, the researcher will analyze the data collected, and then will either accept or reject the
null hypothesis.
Researchers refer to the process of confirming a hypothesis -- the assumption -- as testing the hypothesis.
The second hypothesis is called the alternative hypothesis, or H1.
The researcher assumes the alternative hypothesis is true.
Rejecting the null hypothesis suggests that the alternative hypothesis may be true -- that is, the chance that there is an error in
the data that would make the alternative hypothesis not true is acceptably small, by scientific standards.
Hypothesis testing in quantitative research is never absolute 72
Hypothesis
• Explain what you expect to happen.
• Be clear and understandable.
• Be testable.
• Be measurable.
• Contain an in dependable and dependable variable.

Research Design
Research design basically answers the following questions
1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data be found?
6. What periods of time will the study include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What techniques of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data be analyzed?
10. In what style will the report be prepared?

Population and Sampling
Sampling is the process of

selection of a number of units
from a defined study population.

The Process of Sampling
Identification of study population
Determination of sampling population.
Definition of the sampling unit.
Choice of sampling method.
Estimation of the sample size

Probability Sampling Methods
• The main types of probability sampling methods are:
• Simple random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling ,
multistage sampling and systematic random sampling.
• The key benefit of probability sampling methods is that they

guarantee that the sample chosen is representative of the
population.
• This ensures that the statistical conclusions well be valid.

Variables
• A variable is defined as anything that has a quantity or quality that varies.
• There may be different characteristics affecting the outcome we are studying.
• Variables are generally classified as Dependent and Independent.
• Dependent Variable (DV): an outcome of interest that is observed and measured by

the researcher; hypothesized to be affected by the independent variable.
• Independent Variable (IV): in a study; hypothesized to have an effect on the

dependent variable .
Pilot Survey or test
• A small scale survey carried out prior to the main survey.
• To improve the efficiency of the main survey.
• To test whether questions are giving you the type of answers you want.
• To modify questions to get better response
• Pilot test help to work out solutions to the problems encountered for
better response.
Work Plan
• Work plan is important for the timely completion of the research.
• The research process is divided into various stages and a time frame is
given.
• By following the time frame the researcher is able to evaluate the progress
of the study and make the necessary changes if required.
• Work plan should not be rigid and it should be able to integrate the
changes required.

Collection of Data
• Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study.
• Inaccurate data collection can impact the results of a study and finally lead
to invalid results.
Data Collected can be

• Qualitative
• Quantitative

Data Analysis
When selecting the tools of data analysis, a researcher should make sure that the
assumptions related to the technique are satisfied.
• Descriptive Analysis – percentage, ratio, proportions .

• Qualitative Data Analysis.
• Statistical Data Analysis.
• Descriptive Statistics.
• Regression Analysis.
• Economic Modeling.
• Statistical software’s are used for data analysis.
Interpretation (explanation)
Interpretation transforms the data collected into credible evidence of
outcome.
Organizing the data for analysis (data preparation) ·
Describing the data ·
Interpreting the data

Interpretation
• Where quantitative data have been collected, statistical analysis can help
measure the degree of change that has taken place ·
• Allow an assessment to be made about the uniformity of data.
• Where qualitative data have been collected, interpretation is more difficult.
• Here, it is important to group similar responses into categories and identify

common patterns that can help derive meaning from what may seem
unrelated and diffuse responses.

Reporting
• A report is a presentation of facts and findings, usually as a basis for
recommendations.
• Written for a specific readership, and probably intended to be kept as a

record.
• Report is written to be read by the intended audience.

Recommendations
• Your recommendations point to the future and should
be:
• action-oriented
• feasible
• logically related to the discussion and conclusion
• numbered
• arranged in order of importance
• brief

Structure of a research
• Any Research is divided to 3 sections:
• Preliminary section
• Main section
• Bibliography section

Preliminary section
• Preliminary pages are, in order
• The title page
• Statement of project.
• Abstract.
• Dedication (optional).
• Table of contents.
• Lists of tables.
• List figures.
• List of symbols, and abbreviations.
• Acknowledgments (optional).
Main section
• Introduction
• Background
• Statement of the problem
• Research gap
• Objectives
• Methodology of the study
• Limitations of the study
• Review of the Literature
• Methodology
• Analysis of data(results)
• Summary, conclusions and scope for future research(recommendations)
Bibliography section
• The Bibliography or List of References appears after the Body of
the Document.
• It is a complete listing of all cited resources used to create your
document.
• This section also include the appendices
• Any essential extra material, such as tables and graphs
that support your research but don't relate directly to the
discussion of your findings

Motivation for Research
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems.
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
4. Desire to be of service to society.
5. Desire to get respectability.
And others…

Importance of Knowing How Research is Done
1. Preparation for a career of carrying out research:
It helps a researcher to develop disciplined thinking to observe the field objectively.
2. Jobs where research results are required:
The knowledge of research methodology is helpful in various fields such as government or business administration, community
development and social work where persons are increasingly called upon to evaluate and use research results for action.
3. Improves Decision Making and Problem Facing
When one knows how research is done, then one may have the satisfaction of gaining a new intellectual tool which can become a
way of looking at the world and judging every day experience.
It enables us to make intelligent decisions concerning problems facing us in practical life at different points of time.
Most arguments use a combination of
inductive and deductive reasoning.
Induction vs. deduction
•A reasoning where we start with certain particular

statements and conclude with a universal statement
• Induction is usually described as moving from the specific to

the general, while deduction begins with the general and ends
with the specific
• Arguments based on experience or observation are best
expressed inductively,
• while arguments based on laws, rules, or other widely
accepted principles are best expressed deductively.
Deductive Reasoning
Top-down approach
• Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific.
Sometimes this is informally called a "top-down" approach.
• We begin with thinking up a theory about our topic of interest.
• We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test.
• We narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the
hypotheses.
• This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data -- a
confirmation (or not) of our original theories.
Deductive Reasoning
• Deductive reasoning is a type of deduction used in science and in life.
• It is when you take two true statements, or premises, to form a conclusion.
• For example, A is equal to B.
• B is also equal to C.
• Given those two statements, you can conclude A is equal to C using deductive
reasoning.
Deductive Reasoning
(More general to more specific)
• Theory
• Hypothesis
• Observation
• Confirmation
Deductive Reasoning
(More general to more specific)
Deductive reasoning process:
1. Idea
2. Observation
3. Deduction
Example:
1. Human beings need breath to live.
2. You are a human.
3. You must need breath to live.
Examples for Deductive reasoning
• Since all humans are mortal, and I am a human, then I am mortal.

• All dolphins are mammals, all mammals have kidneys; therefore all dolphins have
kidneys.
• Since all squares are rectangles, and all rectangles have four sides, so all squares
have four sides.
• If Ahmed misses work and at work there is a party, then Ahmed will miss the
party.
• To earn a master’s degree, a student must have 32 credits, Ali has 40 credits, so
Ali will earn a master’s degree.
• It is dangerous to drive on icy streets. The streets are icy now so it is dangerous to
drive now.
• Snakes are reptiles and reptiles are cold-blooded; therefore, snakes are cold-
blooded.
• Red meat has iron in it and beef is red meat, so beef has iron in it.
• Acute angles are less than 90 degrees and this angle is 40 degrees so this angle is
acute.
• Elephants have cells in their bodies and all cells have DNA, so elephants have
DNA.
What is inductive reasoning?
Inductive reasoning process:

1. Observation
2. Theory
3. Induction
Example:
1. I get tired if I don’t drink coffee.
2. Coffee is addictive.
3. I am addicted to coffee.
What is inductive reasoning?
• Inductive reasoning is a method of logical thinking in which you use observations

combined with experiential information you already know to be true to reach a
conclusion.
• When you are able to look at a specific set of data and form general conclusions based
on existing knowledge from past experiences, you are using inductive reasoning.
• For example, if you review the population information of a city for the past 15 years,
you may observe that the population has increased at a consistent rate.
• If you want to predict what the population will be in five years, you can use the
evidence or information you have to make an estimate.
Inductive Reasoning
Down up approach
• When you make a decision about something, you often rely on your observations
and relate them to your previous experiences.
• For example, if you look outside and see a sunny sky, it’s reasonable to think you
will not need an umbrella.
• Because many past sunny days have proven this thinking correct, it is a
reasonable assumption.
• This thought process is an example of using inductive reasoning, a logical
process used to draw conclusions.
Inductive Reasoning
Down up approach
• Inductive reasoning moving from specific observations to broader generalizations

and theories.
• It is called down up approach
• Informally, we sometimes call this a "bottom up" approach
• In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observations and measures, begin
to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that we
can explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.
Examples for inductive reasoning
(specific to general)
• Ali leaves for work at 8:00 a.m. Ali is always on time. Ali assumes, then, that he
will always be on time if he leaves at 8:00 a.m.
• Every windstorm in this area comes from the north. I can see a big cloud of dust
caused by a windstorm in the distance; so, a new windstorm is coming from the
north.
• All cars in this town drive on the right side of the street. Therefore, all cars in all
towns drive on the right side of the street.
Origin
• The word “research” is derived from the Middle
French “recherche”,
Which mean to “go about seeking”.
Research • It is a compound word consisting of “re” and

Methodology “cherche”, meaning ‘search’.
• Earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577.

What is the purpose of research?
search include defining

Formulating hypothesis Collecting, organizing
and redefining
or suggested solutions. and evaluating data.
problems.
Carefully testing the

conclusions to
Making Educations and
determine whether
reaching conclusions.
they fit the formulating
hypothesis.

111
Research Definition
• Research is a careful investigation or inquiry specifically through a search for new
facts in any branch of knowledge.
• It is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its

advancement.
• It can be simply defined as a task of searching from available data to modify a

certain result or theory

Definition of Fact
• The fact is something, that has actually taken place or known to have
existed, which can be validated with pieces of evidence.
• They are strictly defined, and can be measured, observed and proven.
• It refers to something that makes statements true and used in

connection with research and study.

Definition of Fact
• A fact can be an event or information, based on real occurrences

which can be tested through verifiability, i.e. they are supported by
proofs, statistics or documentation.
• Therefore, a fact is nothing but a verifiable truth or reality which are

agreed upon by most of people.

• The term ‘opinion’ is defined as the personal
view or judgment about a subject, that may or
may not be strengthen by the facts or positive
knowledge.
Definition of • In other words, an opinion is an inconclusive

Opinion statement, used in subjective matters, which
cannot be proved true or false.
• It is what a person thinks or feels about

something or someone.
• Hence it is not a true but biased information.

Definition of Opinion
Opinion is highly affected by a

person’s feelings, thoughts, point Therefore, due to individual
of view, desires, attitude, differences, every person’s
experiences, understanding, opinion on a particular matter is
beliefs, values, etc., which cannot also different.
be tested by concrete evidence.

Fact is described as the statement that
can be verified or proved to be true.
Opinion is an expression of judgment or

belief about something.
Key Differences
Between Fact &
Opinion Fact based on observation or research
while opinion is based on assumption.
Fact is an objective reality whereas

opinion is a subjective statement.

Facts explain what actually happened.
Unlike an opinion, that represents a
perception about something.
One important feature of the fact is that

Key Differences it is universal and does not differ from
Between Fact & person to person.
Opinion
As against this, every human being has a
different opinion on a particular subject
and so, it varies from one person to
another.
Facts can be verified with the help of
evidence or statistics. On the contrary,
opinion is not supported by any evidence.
Facts are shown with unbiased words,
however, opinion is expressed with biased
Key Differences words.
Between Fact &
Facts can change anybody’s opinion, but
Opinion vice versa is not possible.
Facts are real information and so it cannot

be challenged or debated, but if we talk
about opinions, they can be debated.
Choosing a Research Topic
A successful research project starts with a good topic.

But how can you decide what to pick?
Choosing a Research Topic
As you browse these databases, ask yourself five
The first thing to do is read your assignment carefully.
questions. When I am looking at a potential topic, what
How long does it have to be?
exactly should I be learning about it?
How many sources will you need?
Are any topics off-limits? Who? What? Where? When? Why? Questions to Ask
When Browsing
Choosing a good research topic has two main steps:
As You Browse a Topic:
Step 1: Select a broad topic of interest. 1) It must be answerable.
Step 2: Narrow it down to an effective research topic once 2) Narrow enough to be covered sufficiently in the
you have learned a little more. required number of pages.
3) Broad enough that you can actually find information.
There are many places that can help you find a broad
4) Abstract enough to require analysis.
topic idea, including news sources, magazines, course
materials, or even a conversation with friends, family or
your instructor. you Will focus on your country? Or others?
Some sort of comparison?
But there are also a few library databases that are ideal When did the situation or event start?
for exploring an area of interest, and they also allow you to Is it ongoing?
get a jump-start on your research at the same time. How recent should your sources be useful?
Why do you want to write about it? Who? What? Where?
When? Why?
Once you can answer the Who, What, When, Where and Why, you typically will have a good idea of an effective,
narrowed version of your original broad topic.
Your instructor might ask you
To phrase your narrowed topic as a question; this is called the (Research question).
The Scientific Method

Research and Scientific Method have a very close relationship but they are not the same.
The Scientific Method may help a researcher to easily answer certain questions in a research, such as answering general
propositions like how far, why, is it true, and so on.
The Objective of the research MUST be based on FACTS!
In collecting data for the research, you need to find good information that you’ll need to analyze.
You must get the information from real facts.
In addition, the information or evidence must not be discovered based on imagination, roughly, myth or similar types of
statements.
General characteristics of research
Empirical (experimental)- research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.
Logical-research is based on valid procedures and principals.
Cyclical-research start with a problem and end with a problem.
Analytical-research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering data, whether historical, descriptive, experimental and case
study.
• Critical-research exhibits carful and precise judgment.
• Methodical-research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using
systematic method and procedure.
• Replicability-research design and procedures are repeated to enable the
researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.
125
Research Ethics
Research ethics
Research ethics govern the standards of conduct for scientific researchers.
It is important to adhere to ethical principles in order to protect the dignity, rights and welfare of research participants.
DEFINITIONNITION
ETHICS-Greek word: ethos= The spirit of community
Moral principles that govern a person’s behavior or the conducting of an activity
The branch of philosophy that deals with morality.
Ethics is concerned with distinguishing between good and evil in the world.
Between right and wrong in human actions.
Between virtuous and non virtuous characteristics of people.
Good Research Practice
The researcher and the research institution are responsible for exercising honest research practices.
The researcher is individually responsible for the activities, subject matter and method of his research, as well as for the quality
of the results.
The researcher must respect the contributions of other researchers and follow standards for authorship and cooperation.
When conducting research, the researcher must follow national and international regulations on ethics and safety.
Ethical Responsibilities of Researchers
Each individual scientist has the ethical responsibility to seek knowledge and to strive to improve the quality of life.
Requirements of scientists :
Competence.
Report results accurately.
Manage resources honestly.
Acknowledge others.
Personal Qualities Of a Good Researcher
 Analytical mind Able to see the full picture as well as the details.
 Systematic: Accomplishing enough work in a proper amount of time, and able to ensure that data is accurately presented and reported.
 Calm: Especially when stressful, you have to keep focused and think logically.
 Intelligent: Research requires critical analysis but most of all common sense.
 Curious: If the researcher is not curious enough then he will not be passionate about delving deeper to discover more insight.
 Committed: Being a researcher is a tough job- the hours can sometimes be very long, the deadlines very short.
 Sympathetic and considerate: Especially when you have to deal with other parties, such as research assistants, younger fellows, or
respondents.
 Quick thinker, Especially when things do not go to plan and you need to make a decision.
 Excellent written and verbal communication skills: for different audiences to clearly understand the findings of the research and how
they can benefit from.
129
Uncertainty, risk and the Precautionary Principle
The researcher must clarify the degree of certainty and regulations that characterizes the research results.
the researcher must take care to clarify the relative extent of the results’ validity.
Also indicate any elements of risk or uncertainty that may be significant for possible uses of the research results.
The researcher must respect the demand for informed approval.
Research must secure the privacy of the research subjects.
The researcher must incorporate and respect alternative sources of knowledge, such as traditional knowledge.
Whistle-blowing and Ethical Responsibility
When the researcher in the course of work comes into conflict with what he considers to be his social responsibility, the
researcher must have the possibility, and, according to the circumstances, duty, to act as a whistle-blower to society.
Research institutions must support employees in whistle-blowing situations.
Ethical Misconduct
Ethical faults in writing and publishing are all too common.
Scientific misconduct – including plagiarism and authorship.
Institutions should make their policies related to plagiarism they should provide clear guidelines to help students and faculty
recognize and avoid plagiarism.
Defining roles on projects and establishing authorship order on manuscripts before the writing begins
130
Principles of Research Ethics
1 Scientific Honesty: Do not commit scientific fraud, i.e. do not fabricate, fudge, trim, cook, destroy, or misrepresent data.
2. Carefulness: Strive to avoid careless errors or sloppiness in all aspects of scientific work.
3. Intellectual Freedom: Scientists should be allowed to seek new ideas and criticize old ones.
4 .They should be free to manage any research they find it interesting.
5. Openness: i.e. share data, results, methods, theories, equipment, and so on. Allow people to see your work, be open to
criticism.
6. The principle of credit: Do not plagiarize the work of other scientists, give credit where credit is due (but not where it is not
due).
7. The principle of public responsibility: Report research in the public media when it is useful to the society

If you steal from one author it is plagiarism, if you steal from
many it is a research
Wilson Mizner

Plagiarism
If you pretend to be the author of someone’s passage, you are not breaking a copyright, but you are still plagiarizing.
Plagiarism means quoting or closely paraphrasing the writings of others while leading the reader to believe that you are the
author of the text.
Etymology: the word “Plagiarism” is derived from Latin “Plagium”, which means “Kidnapping”.
Scientific and academic institutions’ staff should not be exempt from reporting and punishing due to plagiarism.
Scientific and academic institutions should adopt strict ethical standards and guidelines to prevent plagiarism.
There is a dilemma: who, on what basis (criteria, standards, rules), when and how should declare someone a plagiarist.
which institution or which scientific body committee at the national or international level, when plagiarism is proven, can
punished someone and what are the punishments?
It is necessary to work on mechanisms for early detection of plagiarism, and relevant software should be used by all respectable
journals and conferences.
At international level, a database of all cases of plagiarism should be launched with all names of blacklisted plagiarists.
Self-plagiarism
Self-plagiarism is any attempt to take any of your own previously published text, papers, or research results and make it appear
brand new.
Paraphrasing
paraphrasing - using your own words to express someone else's message or ideas.
In a paraphrase, the ideas and meaning of the original source must be maintained; the main ideas need to come through, but
the wording has to be your own.
133
How do you paraphrase a source?
Read the original two or three times or until you are sure you understand it.
Put the original aside and try to write the main ideas in your own words.
Say what the source says, but no more, and try to reproduce the source's order of ideas and importance.
Look closely at unfamiliar words, observing carefully the exact sense in which the writer uses the words.
Check your paraphrase, as often as needed, against the original for accurate tone and meaning, changing any words or phrases
that match the original too closely.
If the wording of the paraphrase is too close to the wording of the original, then it is plagiarism.
Include a citation for the source of the information (including the page numbers) so that you can cite the source accurately.
Even when you paraphrase, you must still give credit to the original author.
paraphrasing techniques: Research tools
Use your own words Tools are instruments used to collect information for performance
Change the structure of sentences assessments, self-evaluations , and external evaluation.
Rewording Tools need to be strong enough to support what the evaluations find during
Don’t distort original meaning of text! research.
Change how you introduce your sources
Definition of tool
It is a testing device for measuring a given event, such as
A questionnaires.
An interview.
Standardized tests.
Or checklist for observations.
It is an instrument that aids to accomplishing a task.
134
Experi-
ments
Standar
Obser-
dized
vations
tests
Researc
h Tools
Inter-
Surveys
views
Questio
nnaire

Meaning of research tool
Research tools are:
• The instruments used for the purpose of data collection.
• Are measurable and observable for data analysis& interpretation.
• Constructed by researcher according to his objectives

Definition of data
Data collection is a systematic process of collecting detail
information about desire objective
from selected sample
under controlled settings
Data collection
Primary data collection always done in interviews
Data collection Observation technique
The choice of data collection method depends on: One of the basic method and oldest one.
The nature of the study of the subject matter. Observation method is used in cases where you want to avoid an
The size and spread of the sample. error that can be a result of bias during evaluation and
The education level of the respondents. interpretation processes.
The type and depth of information to be collected . It is a way to obtain objective data by watching a participant and
The availability of skilled and trained manpower. recording it for analysis at a later stage.
Advantages of observation technique
Provides direct access to research phenomena
Greater flexibility in terms of application
Generate a permanent record of phenomena and the researcher or others can refer with it later
The observation method is one of the best ways to formulate a hypothesis. The researcher can observe and come to know about
the activities, perceptions, likes and dislikes to form a theory on his subject
Observation method is one of the most common methods used in all sciences and is very easy to follow and accept.
In some instances observation is the only available tool to collect essential data and information.
The observation method does not require the willingness of the participant to record. The researcher can observe from a
distance and record his findings.
disadvantages of observation technique
It takes a longer time frame compared to other data collection methods
There is a chance of higher observer bias in the observation method
Several personal behaviors are not open for observation.
There is a higher chance of the observer influencing the behavior of a sample group element
The social phenomena generalization made by observation are not considered reliable as it cannot be used for lab experiments.
In some cases, it is seen that two persons observing the same phenomena come at different results and this can lead to faulty
perceptions.
Observation method is considered an expensive as it requires hard effort and plenty of time.
Questionnaire
It comprise a series of questions prepared by the researcher that are answered and filled by all the respondents.
It allow to collect large data from large number of samples quickly and inexpensively.
It commonly used to get demographic data) (socio-economic. information ).
Structure of questions Disadvantage of questionnaire
Open ended questions Have some difficulties in design.
This is used when a researcher wants more information. Questions have to be relatively simple.
This type of questions is difficult to analyze. Time delay whilst waiting for responses to be returned.
Example No control over who completes it.
Why did you choose to take your graduation degree at this university? No possible to give assistance if required.
Close ended or fixed questions
This type of questions is limited in response and easy to analyse
Example
Have you ever taken a course in statistics?
Advantage of questionnaire Standardized test
Can be posted , e-mailed or faxed. Any form of test that requires all test takers to answer the same
Can cover a large number of people or organization. questions ,or selection of questions from common bank of questions.
Wide geographic coverage. Scored in a standard or consistent manner.
Relatively cheep. It is a ready made test
No prior arrangement are needed.
Avoids embarrassment on the part of respondent.

Research Design

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Research Design

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Research Design

• The research design is like a recipe. Just as a recipe provides a list of

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 1

• Next, we spend some time focusing on research questions or problem.

• We further focus in some important components of these research.

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 4

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 5

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 6

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 7

• There are 2 ways of conducting research

• Experimental (By group samples) .

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 8

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 9

• Correlational research is the observation of two variables to see if there is a

• Experimental research is the observation between an introduced variable the

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 10

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 11

• Negative correlation is when an increase in one variable leads to a decrease in another

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 12

• For example, among millionaires, happiness is found to be uncorrelated to money. This

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 13

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 14

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 15

• Descriptive study defined as "Any study that is not truly experimental.

• Descriptive studies are also conducted to demonstrate relationships between things

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 16

• Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 17

• The description is used for frequencies ,averages and other statistical calculations.

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 18

• Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 19

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 20

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 21

• The most common descriptive research method is the survey.

• Descriptive research generates data, both qualitative and quantitative, that define

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 22

• The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 23

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 24

• This is mainly because experimental research is a classical scientific

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 25

• An experiment is a method of applying treatment to a group and recordering the effect.

• A good group experiment will have two basic elements:

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 26

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 27

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 28

1) The people who participate in the experiment.

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 29

• Extraneous variables are all variables, which are not the independent variable,

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 30

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 31

3)It involves no manipulation of independent variables.

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 33

• For example, a researcher is interested in how weight influences (self-confidence levels)

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 34

• Origin, growth, theories, personalities, crisis, etc.

• Both qualitative and quantitative variables can be used in the collection of

• Depends upon data observed by others rather than investigator.

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 35

• One of the goals of historical research is to communicating of past events.

• The steps of historical research are: formulate an idea , formulate a plan,

Research Methodology - Prof. Eman Siam 36