Introduction to GIS

Brief History of GIS

 Thematic cartography is the origin of GIS
 Manual map overlay was used by planners to
create new and updated maps
• 1960s: Computerized GIS software and
mapping service evolved (Computer
cartography)Initially,
cartography linked software modules
came in vogue
 Stand-alone GIS programs succeeded them
 With the advent of PC and workstations GIS
usage have become a revolution in 1980s.
 In 1990s, GIS become very user friendly with
the development of User Interface.
 General Definition: It is a systematic
integration of Computer Hardware, Software
and Spatial Data, for capturing, storing,
displaying, updating manipulating and
analyzing, in order to solve complex
management problems.
◦ “A GIS is an organized collection of computer
hardware, software, geographic data, and
personnel designed to efficiently capture, store,
update, manipulate, analyze, and display all
forms of geographically referenced information.”
(ESRI, 1990)
1990
 Geographic, because data collected is
associated with some location in space.
 Information, because attributes, or the

characteristics (data), about the space is

what we want to learn about.
 System, because there must be a tie from

the information to the geography in a

seamless operation.
 Spatial data
◦ data that can be linked in geographic space to some
feature on a map
◦ has both a spatial (where) and an attribute (what)
component
 Feature
◦ a single entity that comprises part of a landscape
which can be represented as a point, line or polygon
 Attribute
◦ a characteristic of a feature that contains a
measurement or value for the feature - a column in
a data file
 Technologies for collecting and dealing
with geographic information
 Three main types:
◦ Remote sensing
◦ Global Positioning System (GPS)
◦ Geographic Information System (GIS)
 It is an integration of five basic components

People Data

Software
GIS
Procedure

Hardware
Capture

Store

Query

Analyze

Display

Output
Hardcopy maps
Digital data

GIS
Data
Coordinates

480585.5, 3769234.6
GPS
483194.1, 3768432.3
485285.8, 3768391.2
484327.4, 3768565.9
483874.7, 3769823.0
 Vector formats
• Discrete representations of reality

X,Y X,Y X,Y

X,Y

 Raster formats
 Use square cells to model reality
Reality
Rows
(A highway)

X,Y Columns
 Query
 Identifying specific features

 Identifying features based

on conditions
Kebeles with a population
greater than 2000
 Analysis
Which parcels are
within 50 meters of the road?
Proximity

Well type Drilled

Land owner Ali
Soil type Sandy
Overlay

Network
Paper map Internet

GIS
Data
Image Document
soil.jpg soil.mxd

18
 A GIS works with thematic layers of spatial data

 Answer questions by comparing different layers of data

19
 There are two types of spatial data used by most
geographic information systems: Raster and
Vectors.

 raster data is a cell-based representation of map

features - data sources: satellite images, aerial
photography and scanned images
 Vector data can be classified into three primary
feature types: points, lines and polygons. All vector
data is stored as an x,y coordinate, or a series of
x,y coordinates – data sources: digitizing features
from a base map, global positioning system (GPS).
Objects which are shown on a map
are called graphic features or
features. These features may be
natural or man made objects.
Digital representation of physical or man made
elements:
◦ Points or Nodes
◦ Lines or Arcs
◦ Polygons
◦ Images
 Vector
 Raster
 TIN (Triangulated Irregular
Network)
 Real world entities
represented by - a set
of coordinates +
associated attributes

 Types of vector objects:

◦ Point
◦ Line
◦ Polygon
 Real-world entities are abstracted into three basic
shapes

Retail stores Streets Land uses

Points Lines Areas/Polygons

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Points are zero dimensional objects
which have locations and attribute
information but are too small to be
represented as areas.
 Soil Samples  Spill Locations
◦ Type ◦ Accident Number
◦ pH ◦ Type of Spill
◦ Contaminants ◦ Extent
 Utility Poles  Parcel Centroid
◦ Owner ◦ Section/Block/Lot No.
◦ Address
◦ Height
◦ Owner
◦ Attachments
◦ Assessment Data
Lines are one dimensional objects
which have length but no area.
Each line must begin and end at a
node.
 Street Centerline  Stream
◦ Street Name ◦ Depth
◦ Address Ranges ◦ Quality
 Water Main ◦ Flow Rate
◦ Pipe size
◦ Pipe Material
◦ Date Installed
Polygons are closed mathematical
figures of any shape or size. They
are formed by a series of
connected lines.
 Parcel
◦ Parcel ID Number
◦ Dimensions and Area
 Soil Boundaries
◦ Type
◦ Permeability
 Flood Zones
 In addition to
Geography, GIS is
also about
Information
 Information about a

geographic feature
is called an
attribute
 Tabular Data
(Attributes)

Attribute data can be derived from one or more layers

 Real world entities
represented by a
set of cells in a grid
pattern with
associated
attributes
◦ Typically square &
evenly spaced in X &
Y direction
Important defining characteristics of raster data model
 Abbreviation for PICTURE ELEMENT, which is
the smallest unit in an image. In raster based
GIS systems, attribute information can be
assigned to each pixel.
 Air Photos

Satellite
Imagery

Scanned Maps
A scanned photograph
that has been
mathematically rectified to
eliminate the effects of
displacement so that its
view always appears as
though it is perpendicular
to the ground.
 Geographic Data Sets
◦ Land Use/Land Cover
◦ Vegetation Index
◦ Soil Stability
 Digital Photography
◦ Building Photos
◦ Accident Scenes
◦ Crop Damage
◦ Full Motion Video
 Digital Orthophotography
◦ Rectified Aerial Photos
RASTER

VECTOR

REAL WRLD
Source: Defense Mapping School
National Imagery and Mapping Agency
 Data structure –
◦ Raster- usually simple
◦ Vector- usually complex
 Storage requirements
◦ Raster- large for most data sets
◦ Vector- small for most data sets
 Coordinates conversion
◦ Raster- may be slow depending on size of data sets
◦ Vector- simple
 Analysis
◦ Raster- easy for continuous data, simple for many
layer combinations
◦ Vector- preferred for network analyses, complex for
other spatial operations
 Positional precision
◦ Raster- floor set by pixel size
◦ Vector- limited only by quality of positional
measurements
 Accessibility
◦ Raster- easy to modify or program due to simple
data structure
◦ Vector- often complex
 Display and output
◦ Raster- good for images not for discrete features
◦ Vector- map like, poor for images
 Advantages
◦ Good representation of reality
◦ Compact data structure
◦ Topology can be described in a network
◦ Accurate graphics
 Disadvantages
◦ Complex data structures
◦ Simulation may be difficult
◦ Some spatial analysis is difficult or
impossible to perform
 Advantages
◦ Simple data structure
◦ Easy overlay
◦ Various kinds of spatial analysis
◦ Uniform size and shape
◦ Cheaper technology
 Disadvantages
◦ Large amount of data
◦ Projection transformation is difficult
◦ Different scales between layers can be difficult
◦ May lose information due to generalization
 A data model
typically used to
represent terrain
heights
◦ Typically X, Y and Z
locations for
measured points are
entered into the
model

Components of TIN data model

The shapefile format defines the geometry and
attributes of geographically-referenced
features in as many with specific file
extensions that must be stored in the same
project workspace. They are:
◦ .shp - the file that stores the feature geometry.
Required.
◦ .shx - the file that stores the index of the feature
geometry. Required.
◦ .dbf - the dBASE file that stores the attribute
information of features. Required.
◦ .sbn and .sbx - the files that store the spatial index of
the features. Optional.
Thank you!!!