ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

COLLAGE OF ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY FOR INDUSTRY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LECTURE ON INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL MACHINE

(EMEg-2261)
2-2-3
M.A

1
 Chap.1 Magnetics
Magnetism and Electromagnetism
The study of magnetism begin in the thirteenth century
with many famous scientists and physicists such as
William Gilbert, Hans Christian Oersted, Michael
Faraday, James Maxwell, André Ampere and Wilhelm
Weber all having some input on the subject since.
Certain materials found in nature exhibit a tendency to
attract or repeal each other. These materials, called
magnets.
A magnet:- is a material which has the property of
attracting small bits of iron. The name Magnet is taken
from that of the ancient town magnet

2
 Cont…

Magnets are generally classified in two categories

Permanent magnets
 Electro-magnets
Permanent magnets
 Is the magnets which have the inherence property of retaining
their magnetism indefinitely and they require no electrical
energy for retaining their magnetism.
 A permanent magnet will position itself in a north and south
direction when freely suspended. The north-seeking end of the
magnet is called the North Pole, N, and the south-seeking end
the South Pole, S.

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4
 Electro-magnets

Is the magnetsion due to and only for flow of an electric

current through the coil.
Electro-magnet are also sometimes called as artificial
Magnet.
Whenever an electric current flows through a conductor,
a magnetic field is produced.
The magnetic field produced in a conductor is relatively
weak and is proportional to the current moving through
the conductor and the number of turns wound on the
materials
The higher the current flow, the stronger the magnetic
field produced. This is what we measure with a clamp on
ammeter.
5
 Electro-magnets
 Hans Christian Oersted (1771-1851),
who demonstrated in the year 1819
that a current-carrying conductor
produced a magnetic field.
 Faraday in 1831, showed that it was
possible to produce an electric
current by means of a magnetic field.
 Note: The magnetic polarity in
electromagnetnet is dependent on the
direction of current flow.
 Understanding magnetism is key to
understanding motors, transformers,
relays, power transmission and
generation.

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What is a Magnetic field of a magnet?

Magnetic field:- is the area around a magnet and it is in this area that
the effects of the magnetic force produced by the magnet can be
detected.
Michael Faraday suggested that the magnetic field could be
represented pictorially, by imagining the field to consist of lines of
magnetic flux, which enables investigation of the distribution and
density of the field to be carried out.
 Magnetic flux (magnetic line of force)
 is total magnetic lines of force produced by a magnet
 The quantity of magnetism which exists in a magnetic field
 how much of of magnetic force exist on the surface
 magnetic fields may be produced by permanent magnets or
electromagnets.
 Magnetic fields are created by alternating- and direct-current sources

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 Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force
The direction of magnetic lines of flux radiates from
North Pole to South Pole outside the magnet and is
from south to North Pole inside the magnet.
Thus such lines of flux always form complete closed
loops or paths; they never intersect and always have a
definite direction.
A magnetic field cannot be seen, felt, smelt or heard
and therefore is difficult to represent
 The laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion can be
demonstrated by using two bar magnets. Unlike poles
attract each other and like poles repel each other. This
is indicated in the fig 1.2 below
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Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force

Figure 1.2
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 Electromagnetism
 A magnetic field is always associated with a current-carrying conductor .

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 Ampere's Right hand rule
Field or flux
line

Current-carrying
conductor

The thumb pointing in the direction of the current

 Our fingers will point in the direction magnetic field

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Another form of Ampere's right-hand rule
 Solenoid:-a cylindrical coil with large no of turns
If we grasp the coil with our right hand the fingers pointing in
the direction of the current, thumb will point in the direction of
the north pole..

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 Magnetic properties of Materials
Magnetic materials can be classified generally as
a)Diamagnetic
b)Para magnetic
c)Ferromagnetic
Diamagnetic Materials
Those substances that experience a feeble or very weak
force of repulsion are called diamagnetic, such as
bismuth, silver, and copper are diamagnetic materials.
The permeability of a diamagnetic material is slightly
less than the permeability of free space.

13
 Cont…
Paramagnetic Materials
 Those substances that experience a feeble force of repulsion
are called Paramagnetic materials but the permeability is
slightly greater than the permeability of free space. Example
Air,Aluminum,oxygen,Manganese,platinum and palladium
 Since the force experienced by a paramagnetic or a
diamagnetic substance is quite feeble, for all practical purposes
we can group them together and refer to them as nonmagnetic
materials.
Ferromagnetic materials
 These materials hence the perm abilities much greater than
space. Principal ferromagnetic materials is Iron and various
steel

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC RELATIONSHIPS

1. Magnetic Flux Density

 Is the magnetic flux per unit cross-sectional area.
 The total magnetic flux that comes out of the magnet is not
uniformly distributed
 The magnetic flux density increases as we approach closer to
the end of the magnet
 A greater amount of magnetic flux passing through an area that
is nearer the magnet pole

B
A
B = magnetic flux density, T
 = magnetic flux, Wb
A = area through which  penetrates perpendicularly, m2
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 Example
 The total magnetic flux out of a cylindrical permanent magnet
is found to be 0.032 mWb. If the magnet has a circular cross
section and a diameter of 1 cm.
what is the magnetic flux density at the end of the magnet?
Solution???
 As we move away from the end of the magnet, the magnetic
flux spreads out, and therefore the magnet flux density
decreases.

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 2. Magneto motive Force
 A driving force causing to establish magnetic flux.
 The magnetic flux is proportional to the products of amperes
and turns.
 Ability of a coil to produce magnetic flux is magneto motive
force
F m  NI
Magneto motive force (MMF), AT
N = number of turns of coil
I = excitation current in coil, A

Magneto motive force in the magnetic circuit is analogous to electromotive force

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 Example

#2. The coil below has 1000 turns wound on a cardboard

toroid. The diameter D of the toroid is 10 cm, and the cross section
is 1 cm.
The total magnetic flux in the toroid is 3Wb when there is an
excitation current of 10 mA in the coil.
1. What is the magnetic flux when the current is increased to 20
mA?
2. What is the magnetic flux density within the coil when the
current is 20 mA

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 3. Magnetic Reluctance
 It is Opposition of the material to establish magnetic flux.
F m
  m

The MMF, AT
 = magnetic flux, Wb
m= reluctance of the magnetic circuit. At/Wb
Transposing, we have
F m    ………………..Ohm's law of magnetic circuits.
m
l
 m 
μA
Doubling the MMF in the circuit results in a doubling of the flux

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 4. Permeability

Permeability (μ) – the magnetic property of a material to

allow itself to be magnetized.
It determines the characteristics of magnetic materials and
nonmagnetic materials.
7
 0  4   10 H / m
 The reluctance of magnetic materials is much lower than
that of air or nonmagnetic material.
The permeability of magnetic materials is much greater
than that of air or non magnetic material
Magnetic materials (iron steel cobalt nickel )

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 Example
#3 In Figure below we assume that the magnetic flux is
practically uniform in the cross-sectional area of the toroid.
The mean path length is 0.314 m and the cross-sectional area
through which the flux exists is 78.5 x 10-6 m2. Cal­culate the
number of ampere-turns required to set up magnetic flux of 1
Wb

Solution ???
 Comparatively difficult to establish a large magnetic flux in air

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 5 . Relative Permeability
 Compares the permeability of magnetic materials
with that of air

 r 
 0
B
 
H
Where  = absolute permeability of the material. H/m
0 = 410-7H/m = permeability of free space
r = relative permeability

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 Example
Calculate the absolute and relative permeabilities of cast steel operating at
magnetic flux densities of 0.7 T and 1.0 T if the values of magnetizing
force are 400At/m and 800 At/m respectively
Solution
The absolute permeabilities are:
 For 0.7T :??
 For 1 T:??
The Relative permeability's are:
 For 0.7 T :??
 For 1 T : ??
 Cast steel has at least 1000 times more ability to set up magnetic flux
lines than nonmagnetic materials

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 6 Magnetic Field Intensity
 Magnetizing force or magnetic field strength.
 It is the magneto motive force gradient per unit length of
magnetic circuit
Fm
H =
l
 The magnetic field intensity for the air path is much larger than
for the iron path

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 7. Magnetization (B-H) Curve
 The nonlinear relationship between magnetic flux density
and magnetic field intensity
 The magnetic flux density increases almost linearly with an
increase in the magnetic field intensity up to the knee
 Beyond the knee a continued increase in the magnetic field
intensity results in a relatively small increase in the
magnetic flux density
 A slight increase in magnetic flux density for a relatively
large increase in magnetic field intensity the materials are
said to be saturated

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Magnetization (B-H) Curve

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 Magnetization (B-H) Curve
Magnetic material theory
 Magnetic materials are composed of many tiny magnets
(magnetic domains) that are randomly positioned when the
material is totally demagnetized
 Application of a magnetizing force the tiny magnets will tend to
align themselves in the direction of this force
 The alignment tiny magnets increases proportionally until the
knee of the curve.
 Beyond the knee of fewer tiny magnets remain to be aligned
 When there are no more tiny magnets to be aligned, the
ferromagnetic material is completely saturated.
 Saturation region practical implications in the operation of
electrical machines
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 Hysteresis loop
 Hysteresis is lagging of flux density B behind
the magnetizing force H
If the specimen has been completely
demagnetized and the magnetizing force H is
increased oa is the normal magnetization
curve
The trace of B is higher than oa
A residual flux density referred to as remnant
flux (retentivity) density ob.
In order to reduce B to zero, a negative field
strength oc must be applied. The magnetic
field intensity OE required to wipe out the
residual magnetism ob is called coercive force
(coercive)
-H to +H, the a path defa is similar to the
curve abcd.
The closed loop abcdef thus traced out is
called the hysteresis loop

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 Hysteresis loss

 A disturbance in the alignment of the domains (i.e. groups of

atoms) of a ferromagnetic material causes energy to be expended
in taking it through a cycle of magnetization. This energy appears
as heat in the specimen and is called the hysteresis loss.
The energy loss associated with hysteresis is proportional to the
area of the hysteresis loop.
The area of a hysteresis loop varies with the type of material.
The area, and thus the energy loss, is much greater for hard
materials than for soft materials.
Figure below Shows typical hysteresis loops for:
a)Hard material, which has a high remanence Oc and a large
coercivity Od
b)Soft steel, which has a large remanence and small coercivity
c)Ferrite, this being a ceramic-like magnetic substance made from
oxides of iron, nickel, cobalt, magnesium, aluminum and manganese;
the hysteresis of ferrite is very small.
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Cont…

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 Why does hysteresis occur?
 To understand hysteresis in a ferromagnetic core, we have to
look into the behavior of its atomic structure before, during and
after the presence of a magnetic field.
 The atoms of iron and similar metals (cobalt, nickel, and some
of their alloys) tend to have their magnetic fields closely
aligned with each other. Within the metal, there is an existence
of small regions known as domains where in each domain
there is a presence of a small magnetic field which randomly
aligned through the metal structure

An example of a magnetic domain orientation in a metal structure

before the presence of a magnetic field. 31
 Cont…
 Magnetic field direction in each domain is random as such that
the net magnetic field is zero.
 When m.m.f is applied to the core, each magnetic field will
align with respect to the direction of the magnetic field. That
explains the exponential increase of magnetic flux during the
early stage of magnetization.
 As more and more domain are aligned to the magnetic field,
the total magnetic flux will maintain at a constant level hence
as shown in the magnetization curve (saturation).
 When m.m.f is removed, the magnetic field in each domain
will try to revert to its random state

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 Cont…
 However, not all magnetic field domains would revert to its random
state hence it remained in its previous magnetic field position.
 This is due to the lack of energy required to disturb the magnetic
field alignment. Therefore, in an ac current situation, to realign the
magnetic field in each domain during the opposite cycle would
require extra m.m.f (also known as coercive m.m.f).
 This extra energy requirement is known as hysteresis loss.
 The larger the material, the more energy is required hence the
higher the hysteresis loss.

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 Eddy Current Loss

 A time-changing flux induces voltage within a ferromagnetic core.

 These voltages cause swirls of current to flow within the core –
eddy currents.
 Energy is dissipated (in the form of heat) because these eddy
currents are flowing in a resistive material (iron). The amount of
energy lost to eddy currents is proportional to the size of the paths
they follow with in the core.
 To reduce energy loss, ferromagnetic core should be broken up
into small strips, or laminations, and build the core up out of these
strips.
 An insulating oxide or resin is used between the strips, so that the
current paths for eddy currents are limited to small areas

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Cont…

35
 Hysteresis loop
Conclusions
A. Flux density B always lags with respect to the
magnetizing force H.
B. An expenditure of energy is essential to get a
complete cycle of magnetization.
C. Energy loss is proportional to the area of
hysteresis loop and depends upon the quality of
the magnetic material.

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
 It is generating an induced
current in a closed circuit
by changing the magnetic
field through it.
Faraday’s law of Electro
Magnetic Induction
 When the magnet was kept
inside the coil nothing
happened
 when the north pole of the
magnet was inserted in the
coil galvanometer pointer
was deflected in the
direction of anticlockwise
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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

When the magnet was

withdrawn the pointer of
the galvanometer
deflects on the other side
and the direction of
current was found to be
clockwise
Similar results were
obtained when the south
pole of the magnet was
inserted or withdrawn,
but the direction of
current in this case was
reverse
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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Faraday summed up the results as Faraday's laws of
electromagnetic induction
1) Whenever the magnetic flux is changed or when a conductor is
cut by the magnetic flux an emf is induced
2) The magnitude of the induced emf generated in a coil is directly
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux.
 The change of flux can be produced in two different ways:
I. Dynamically induced emf :-By the motion of the conductor or the
coil in a magnetic field
II. Statically induced emf :-By changing the current (either
increasing or decreasing)
 Statically induced emf can be further subdivided into
(a) self-induced emf and
(b) mutually induced emf.
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 Self induced emf
 Any electrical circuit in which the change of current is
accompanied by the change of flux, and therefore by an induced
emf is said to be inductive or to possess self inductance.
 The property of the coil which enables to induce an emf in it,
whenever the current changes is called self-induction

d
e  N
dt
di
e  L
dt
A coil with changing current and flux

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 The phenomenon of generation of induced
Mutually Induced emf emf in a circuit by changing the

current in a neighboring circuit is called mutual induction.

 When the switch K is closed to start current in the coil P the

galvanometer gives a sudden "kick" in one direction.
 when K is opened, the galvanometer again shows a deflection but in the
opposite direction.
di
e  M 12
2 dt
1 2
M M N N
12 21 2 I 1 I

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 Direction of Induced emf

 Fleming's right hand rule

 To obtain direction of
dynamically induced emf
 Stretch the right hand fingers in
three mutually perpendicular
directions
 If the forefinger points in the
direction of the magnetic flux
 the thumb points in the direction
of motion of the conductor
relative to the magnetic field
 then the middle finger
represents the direction of the
induced emf.

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 Lenz’s Law
 The enduced current produces a magnetic field that opposes the
change in flux that caused the induced current
 Used to fix the direction of statically induced emf.
 The direction of the induced emf is always opposite to the
change of flux responsible for producing that emf.
 The direction of this induced current generated in the coil
should be such that the motion of the magnet is opposed

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 Magnitude of induced E.m.f

N1  2 
Inducedemf  V
t
d
e   (N  )
dt

d
e   N ----------Faraday's law
dt
 Negative sign in the above equation signifies that the induced
e.m.f generates a current tending to oppose the increase of flux
through the coil.
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 Production of Induced Force on a Wire
1. A current carrying conductor present in a uniform magnetic
field of flux density B would produce a force to the
conductor/wire. Dependent upon the direction of the
surrounding magnetic field, the force induced is given by:
F = i (l × B)
Where: i – Current flow in the conductor
l – Length of the wire
B – Magnetic field density
2. The direction of the force is given by Fleming’s right-hand
rule. The direction of the force depends on the direction of
current flow and the surrounding magnetic field. A rule of
thumb to determine the direction can be found using the right-
hand rule as shown below:

45
 Cont…
3. The induced force formula shown earlier is true if the current
carrying conductor is perpendicular to the direction of the
magnetic field. If the current carrying conductor is positioned
at an angle to the magnetic field, the formula is modified to be
as follows:
 

Where: θ - angle between the conductor and the direction of the

magnetic field
 The developed force on conductor is fundamental to the
operation of all types of motor

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Induced Voltage on a Conductor Moving in a Magnetic Field
1. If a conductor moves or ‘cuts’ through a magnetic field,
voltage will be induced between the terminals of the
conductor at which the magnitude of the induced voltage is
dependent upon the velocity of the wire assuming that the
magnetic field is constant. This can be summarized in terms
of formulation as shown:
Ein=(VXB)l

Where:
v – velocity of the wire
B – magnetic field density
l – length of the wire in the magnetic field

47
 Cont…
2. Note: The value of (length) is dependent upon the angle at
which the wire cuts through the magnetic field. Hence a more
complete formula will be as follows:
Ein=(VXB)l cosθ
Where: θ - angle between the conductor and the direction of (v x
B)
3.The induction of voltages in a wire moving in a magnetic field
is fundamental to the operation of all types of generators.

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 Magnetic circuits
What is a Magnet circuit?
 Magnet circuit is the path or the route followed by magnetic
flux. In fact the laws of magnetic circuit are almost similar (but
not exactly same as)to those of the electric current circuit.
 What is an electric circuit? What is the difference between
electric current and magnetic circuit?
Composite Series Magnetic Circuits
 A magnetic circuit of varying length of different materials of
different parameters through which the same flux flows is
known as a series magnetic circuit. This is also called
composite magnetic circuit. Hence the total reluctance is the
sum of reluctance of individual parts or magnetic path.
(Rm)= L1/1o A1+ L2/2o A2+ L3/3o A3

49
 Cont…
Leakage Flux In Magnetic Circuit
 Leakage flux is the flux which does not follow the designed
path intended to follow in a magnetic circuit.
 The flux passing through the air gap is known as useful flux.
 However, as air is not perfect a magnetic insulator, hence a part
of the total flux returns by paths(outside the designed
magnetic path) is leakage flux.
The total flux =flux in air gap(useful flux)+leakage flux.
Leakage factor ==Total flux = flux through iron path
useful flux flux through air gap
 For electrical machine vary between 1.1 to 1.25

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Comparison between Electrical and Magnetic Circuit

51
 What are major applications of Magnets
 They are used in motors and generators, telephones, relays,
loudspeakers, computer hard drives and floppy disks, anti-lock
brakes, cameras, fishing reels, electronic ignition systems,
keyboards, T.V and radio components and in transmission
equipments

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