CHAPTER -4

DC MACHINE
Introduction
 Dc machines are characterized by their versatility and simple drive
system so it is extensively used in industry.
 Dc machines can work as generators & motors
 Generator is an electrical machines that change mechanical energy
in to electrical energy by the principles of electromagnetic induction
 In general there are two types of generators
- DC Generator
- AC Generators
 DC Generator converts mechanical energy to DC electrical energy
 While AC generator converts mechanical energy to AC electrical energy

1
 Cont….

 In generator mode the machine is driven by a prime mover

(hydroturbine,steam turbine or a diesel engine) with the
mechanical energy converted into electrical energy.
 In the motor mode, the machine drives a mechanical load
with the electrical energy supplied converted into mechanical
energy.
 The versatility of dc machines in combination with the relative
simplicity of their drive systems will insure their continued
use in a wide variety of applications.
2
 DC generators
 There is almost no modern use of dc machines as generators.
 are used in aircrafts, ships and road mounted vehicles which are
isolated from land based ac networks for power supply.
 DC generators are still being used to produce power in small back
up and stand-by generating plants to provide uninterrupted power
supply
 Presently, all the land based electrical power networks are a.c
systems of generation, transmission and distribution.
 The universal use of ac systems is on account of their:
a) Lower generation and transmission costs,
b) Higher efficiency (large bulk ac power can be
transmitted and distributed over long distance at
much HV that are impossible in dc system),
c) Greater reliability on account of interconnection and control.
  3
 DC motors
 It is extensively used in industry to convert electrical energy in
to mechanical energy.
 Because of the ease with which they can be controlled, dc
motors have been frequently used in applications requiring a
wide range of motor speeds or precise control of motor output.
 It is used in rolling mills, in automotive vehicles as starter
motors, in overhead cranes for electric trains and blower
motors

4
 Principles of operation of Generators

Whenever a conductor cuts a magnetic flux an e.m.f is induced in

it by Electro-Magnetic Induction.
Electro-Magnetic Induction takes place whenever the magnetic
flux linked with a circuit changes, or a conductor cuts magnetic
flux.
Magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the rate of change of flux
linkage
e= -dф/dt
Magnetic field variation can be caused by:
a) Relative motion
b) Varying flux

5
 Cont…
This e.m.f causes a current to flow
if the conductor circuit is closed
Hence the two basic fundamental
element of an electrical generator are
i) A magnetic field.
ii)A conductor or conductors
which can so move as to cut the flux.
Figure 4.1

6
 Simple AC Generator
– A single loop of wire is rotated
between the poles of magnets.
– Each end of a conductor is
connected to a slip ring, which in
turn rotates under carbon brush.
– Carbon brush-slip ring arrangement
facilitates connection between the
rotating loop conductor and external
circuit.
– AC e.m.f will be induced at the Figure 4.2
conductor and picked by the brush
terminals.
7
8
9
 Simple DC Generator
Simple DC generator with
commutator & split ring is
used to generate DC voltage.
Each terminal of the loop
conductor is connected to each
segment of the split ring.
A commutator is a switching
device which reverses the
external connection to the
armature as the current
reverses its direction.
A pulsating DC is generated
by these methods.

10
Simple DC Generator
Drawback:
 A pulsating DC is not
often satisfactory in most
practical application, like
comm. equipments – causes
hamming to radio output.
 Methods to Eliminate
- More number of poles
- More Armature coils
 Pulsation – commutation
ripple

11
12
 CONSTRUCTION OF DC MACHINE

The dc machines used for
industrial applications have
essentially two major parts:
a) Field system (Stator)
b) Armature (Rotor) and
1. The field system: - is
located on stationary part of the
machine called stator, and it is
designed to produce magnetic
flux and therefore provides the
necessary excitation (cause) for
operation.

 
Cut--away view of DC Machines 13
 Cont…
 The stator of the machine consists of the following:
i) Yoke (Frame): is constructed from Cast steel and serves as a
mechanical support for entire assembly.
ii) Field winding: consists of a few turns of heavy wire for a
series field or many turns of fine wire for a shunt field.
Essentially, the field coils are electromagnets whose ampere
turns provide a magneto motive force (MMF).
iii) Field pole: - constructed from laminated steel and bolted or
welded to the yoke after the assembly of field windings has
been inserted on them. It is designed to produce the main flux.

14
 Cont…
2. Armature consists of

armature core with slots,


armature winding accommodated in slots,

brush, commutator and the shaft

Generally the armature is the rotating part of a DC machine
where the process of electromechanical energy conversion takes
place.

The purpose of the armature is to rotate the conductors in the
uniform magnetic field and to induce an alternating emf in its
winding.
The armature core: - constructed from laminated layers of
steel to reduce hysteresis and eddy current loss in the core.
15
 Brush
Used to ensure the electrical connection b/n rotating
commutator and stationary external load circuit.
Is needed to collect the current from rotating
commutator or to lead the current to it.
Brushes are made from carbon or graphite
compounds in the shape of rectangular block.
They are firmly held against the commutator by
means of spring.
Brush rings are located at the commutator end.

16
 Commutator

it is mounted on the rotor of the DC machine and it

performs mechanical rectification of power with the
help of brush.
AC to DC in case of generator
DC to AC in case of motors operation.
 It consists of copper segments, individually insulated
from each other and from the shaft.
The ends of armature coils are connected to the
commutator, which together with the brushes rectifies
the alternating emf induced in the armature coils

17
 Commutation

 The currents induced in armature conductors of a d.c. generator are AC.

 To make their flow unidirectional in the external circuit, we need a
commutator.
 These currents flow in one direction when armature conductors are under
N-pole and in the opposite direction when they are under S-pole.
 As conductors pass out of the influence of N-pole and enter that of S-
pole, the current in them is reversed.
 This reversal of current takes place along magnetic neutral axis or brush
axis, when the two commutator segments to which the coil is connected
are being short circuited by brush.
 This process by which current in the short-circuited coil is reversed
while it crosses the M.N.A. is called commutation.
 The brief period during which coil remains short-circuited is known as
commutation period

18
Commutator

19
 Types of Armature

There are two types of armature constructions

1.Ring type
2.Drum type
Ring type
a. Coils are wound around a hallow iron core.
b. Taps are taken at regular intervals to be connected to the commutator
segments.
c. Early design and seldom used today
Drum type
i. Current armature construction standard.
ii. The insulated coils are inserted into slots in the cylindrical armature
drum
iii.The ends of the coil are connected in series at the commutator
segments.
20
 Cont…

Drum type
Ring type

21
 Armature windings

There are two types of

armature windings
Lap winding
a) The end of one coil is
connected to the start of
next coil at the adjacent
commutator segment.
b) Number of parallel current
path =Number of poles
i.e. a=p

22
 Cont…
Wave winding
a) The end of the
first coil
connected to the
start of the second
coil under the next
main pole.
b) It has only two
parallel current
path regardless of
the number of
poles.
i.e. a= 2

23
 Comparison of wave & lap windings
In wave winding, for the given number of poles &
armature conductors, more EMF is induced than
lap winding.
For high voltage & low current wave winding is
used
For low voltage & high current lap winding is
used, because, it has more parallel paths of
conductors

24
Classification of DC Machines
 According to the method of their field excitation dc
machines are classified as:
Separately excited and Self excited
1. Separately excited
 The generator is not supply its own field
excitation.
 The field winding is excited from independent
separate external DC source
 It needs external DC source in order to bring them in
to operation
 it is used in laboratories where large voltage variation
is essential for lab. experiment 25
 Separately Excited DC Generator

Figure 4.4 (a) Separately excited dc Generator

26
 Cont…

Figure 4.4 (b) Connections of separately excited dc Generator

27
 Separately Excited DC Motor

Figure 4.5Connections of separately excited dc Motor

28
 Self - Excited DC Generator
 The generator supplies its own field excitation
 When the field winding is excited by its own armature, the
machines is said to be a self excited dc machine i.e. their
field and armature windings are connected.
 In these machines, the field poles must have a residual
magnetism, so that when the armature rotates, a residual
voltage appears across the brushes.
 Residual magnetism will be used to start generator
operation, voltage build up process
 Residual magnetism- retained magnetism by an
electromagnet after a magnetizing force is disconnected

29
 Classification of self excited DC Machine

 Based on the connection of the field winding with the

armature winding, a self-excited dc machine can be
sub-divided in to three groups.
• Shunt wound
• Series Wound
• Compound Wound a) short shunt
b) long shunt

30
 Shunt Wound Generator

The field winding consists of a large number of turns of

fine wire and is connected in parallel with the armature.
So the resistance of the field winding is very large.

 Thus the shunt (field) current Ish is very small

The excitation current varies in accordance with the output
voltage
A flow of armature current causes voltage drop across the
armature, and in turn causes a decrease in excitation current
and output voltage.
Hence, variation in load current causes output voltage
fluctuation, requires regulation
31
Cont….

Figure 4.6

32
 Voltage build-up of Shunt generators

• When the generator is run at constant speed, some e.m.f. will

be generated due to residual magnetism in the main pole.
• This e.m.f will circulate field current If which in turn
produces additional flux to reinforce the original residual ф.
• This process continues, and the generator builds up the
normal generated voltage following the occ.

Figure 4.7 : Voltage build up in a self excited dc generator

33
 Cont…
• As shown in the figure 4-8 below, in shunt generator the voltage
build up depends up on the field circuit resistance (Rf)

Figure 4-8: Effect of field resistance on voltage build up

• If field resistance is Rf1 then the generator will build up 111Volt
• If field resistance is Rf2 then the generator will build up 100Volt
• If field resistance is Rc then the generator will build up 85Volt

34
 Cont…
• If the field resistance is increased, the slop of resistance
line also increases
• The field resistance tangent to occ is called critical
resistance (Rc) for the shunt generator.
• Rc is the maximum field circuit resistance (for a given
speed) with which the generator would just excite
• If the field resistance is increased beyond Rc the
generator will fall to excite.
• For proper voltage builds up the following are required
-Residual magnetism,
-Field MMF should aid Residual magnetism
-Rf< Rc
35
 Cont…
The drop in terminal voltage
with the application of load is
relatively small, as the internal
resistance of the armature coil
is small.
Thus, shunt generators are
referred to as constant voltage
generators.

Figure 4.9

36
 Series Wound Generator
The field winding of series wound machine is wound
with few turns of thick wire. And connected in series
with the armature
So the resistance of the field winding is very low
The current drawn by the generator passes through the
field winding as well as the armature. So

Figure 4.10
37
 Figure 4.11
The output voltage linearly increases with armature
current up to field saturation point, after this point the
voltage instantly drops. and the current remains constant.
Thus, it is referred to as constant current generator

38
 Compound Wound Generator

Consist of series and shunt field coils.

The series field compensates the drop in voltage that
takes place due to armature resistance. Thus the
output voltage is fairly constant

Figure 4.12

39
 Compound Wound Generator

The field windings of a compound DC generator can be

wound into two types
- Cumulative
- Differential
 Cumulative: the two fields aid each other.
so that the m.m.f in the series field adds to that of the
shunt field.
Differential: the two fields oppose each other or the
m.m.f in series field opposes to that of the shunt field
m.m.f

40
 Cumulative Compound Generator

Depending on the degree of compounding,

proportionality between series and shunt winding,
compound generators are classified as:
Under compounded: VFL of compound generator
is higher than shunt generator but lower than VNL
Flat compounded: VFL = VNL
Over compounded: VFL > VNL

41
Cumulative Compound Generator

Figure 4.13

42
Armature Reaction

It is the effect of magnetic

flux set up by armature
current on the main flux
Armature flux is created by
the current flows through the
armature coil
This flux is at right angle to
the main flux and tends to
distort and weaken the flux
coming from the main pole
This distortion and
weakening of the main flux is
said to be armature reaction,
and causes the neutral plane Figure 4.17
to shift 43
 Figure 4. 18
The armature flux has two effects:
(i) It demagnetises or weakens the main flux which leads
to reduction of generated voltage
(ii) It cross-magnetizes or distorts it, this causes sparking
at the brush
The shifting of the neutral plane due to armature reaction
results in arcing 44
 Demagnetizing AT per Pole
 Since armature demagnetizing ampere-turns are neutralized by
adding extra ampere-turns to the main field winding, it is
essential to calculate their number.
 But it should be remembered that the number of turns is equal
to half the number of conductors because two conductors-
constitute one turn.
Let
Z = total number of armature conductors
I = current in each armature conductor
= Ia/ 2 …for wave winding
=Ia /P ... for lap winding
ϴm =forward lead in mechanical or angular degrees

45
Cont…

46
 Cont…
• Total number of turns in these angles =
• Demagnetizing amp-turns per pair of poles =
• Demagnetizing amp - turns/pole =
• ATd per pole =
Cross-magnetizing AT per pole
• Total armature-conductors/pole both cross and
demagnetizing = Z / P
• Demagnetizing conductors/pole =
• Cross-magnetizing conductors/pole =
• Cross-magnetizing amp-conductors/pole=

47
 Cont…
 Cross-magnetizing amp-turns/pole =
(Remembering that two conductors make one turn)
per pole =

Note (i) For neutralizing the demagnetizing effect of

armature-reaction, an extra number of turns may be
put on each pole.
No. of extra turns/pole = for shunt generator
No. of extra turns/pole = for series generator
(ii) If lead angle is given in electrical degrees, it should
be converted into mechanical degrees by

ϴm=
48
 Cont…

 It should be noted that both distorting and

demagnetizing effects will increase with increase in the
armature current.
Commutator Arcing
 is caused by distortion of the main flux due to armature
reaction.
 Minimized by
1. Brush shift method
2. Using inter-poles
3. Using compensating winding
49
 Interpoles

The current flow in the coil

undergoing commutation
The collapsing magnetic field
induces voltage which causes
arcing and neutral plane shift.
To reduce self inductance voltage,
interpoles are used.
Interlopes have same polarity as
the next field pole in the direction
of armature rotation.
Figure 3.19

50
Compensating winding
Used for large DC machines which are
subjected to large fluctuations in load
Their function is to neutralize the cross
magnetizing effect of armature
reaction.
They are connected in series with
armature in such a way that the current
in them flows in opposite direction to
that flowing in armature conductors
Figure 3.20
So it produce a magnetic flux equal to
armature flux but opposite in direction
this neutralize the effect.

51
 Cont…

• In the absence of compensating windings, the flux will be

suddenly shifting backward and forward with every change
in load.
• This shifting of flux will induce e.m.f. in the armature coils
• The magnitude of this e.m.f. will depend upon the rapidity
and amount of changes in load.
• It may be so high as to strike an arc between the
consecutive commutator segments across the top of the
mica sheets separating them.
• This may further develop into a flashover around the
whole commutator thereby short circuiting the whole
armature.

52
 EMF EQUATION OF DC GENERATOR

Let ϕ= flux per pole in Weber,

Z = total number of armature conductors =
P = Number of poles
a = number of parallel paths in armature
N= armature rotation in revolutions per minute (rpm)
Eg = emf generated in one of the parallel path
Hence according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction emf generated / conductor

53
 For wave winding

• Number of parallel current path a = 2

• Number of conductors (in series) in one path= Z/2
∴ emf generated / path =

For lap winding

• Number of parallel current path a = P
• Number of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/P
∴ emf generated / path =

54
 DC Generator Characteristics

 The speed of a d.c. machine operated as a generator is

fixed by the prime mover.
 For general-purpose operation, the prime mover is
equipped with a speed governor so that the speed of
the generator is practically constant.
 Under such condition, the generator performance
deals primarily with the relation between excitation,
terminal voltage and load.
 These relations can be best exhibited graphically by
means of curves known as generator characteristics.

55
The three most important characteristics or curves of a D.C. generator are

1. No-load Saturation Characteristic (E0/If)

 It is also known as Magnetic Characteristic or Open-
circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.).
 It shows the relation between the no-load generated
e.m.f. in armature, E0 and If at a given fixed speed.
 It is just the magnetization curve for the material of
the electromagnets.
 Its shape is practically the same for all generators
whether separately-excited or self-excited

56
 Cont..

• The O.C.C. for a d.c. generator is determined as follows.

• The field winding of the d.c. generator (series or shunt) is
disconnected from the machine and is separately excited
from an external d.c. source as shown in Fig.4.21 (ii).
• The generator is run at fixed speed. (If) is increased from
zero in steps and the corresponding values of generated
e.m.f. (E0) read off on a voltmeter connected across the
armature terminals.
• On plotting the relation between E0 and If, we get the open
circuit characteristic as shown in Fig4.21 (i). below
57
Cont…

Figure 4.21

58
 The following points may be noted from O.C.C.

1. When If is zero, there is some generated e.m.f. OA. This is due

to the residual magnetism in the field poles.
2. Over a fairly wide range of If (up to point B in the curve), the
curve is linear, because in this range, reluctance of iron is
negligible as compared with that of air gap.
 The air gap reluctance is constant and hence linear relationship.
3. After point B on the curve, the reluctance of iron also comes
into picture.
 It is because at higher flux densities, r for iron decreases and
reluctance of iron is no longer negligible.
 Consequently, the curve deviates from linear relationship.
4. After point C on the curve, the magnetic saturation of poles
begins and E0 tends to level off.
59
 2. Internal and External Characteristics

 Internal characteristics gives the relation between the e.m.f. E

actually induces in the armature (after allowing for the
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction) and the armature current
Ia.
 The e.m.f E will be less than E0 due to the effects of armature
reaction. Therefore, this curve will lie below the open circuit
characteristic.
 External characteristics also referred to as performance characteristic
or sometimes voltage-regulating curve
 It gives the relation between terminal voltage V and the load current
I.
 V will be less than E due to voltage drop in the armature circuit.
 Therefore, this curve will lie below the internal characteristic.

60
 Cont…
 As the load current increases, the terminal voltage falls due
to two reasons:
- The armature reaction weakens the main flux so that actual
e.m.f generated E on load is less than that generated (E0) on
no load.
- There is voltage drop across armature resistance (ILRa =
IaRa). Due to these reasons, the external characteristic is a
drooping curve

Figure 3.22 61
 Cont…

In the absence of armature reaction and armature drop, the

generated e.m.f. would have been E0 (curve 1) which gives the
o.c.c curve
 The internal characteristic can be determined from external
characteristic by adding IaRa drop to the external characteristic.
Curve 2 is the internal characteristic of the generator and
should obviously lie above the external characteristic.
 The values of V are obtained by subtracting IaRa from
corresponding values of E,
Due to this reason the external characteristic is a below the
internal characteristic curve shown by (curve 3).
62
 Voltage Regulation
 The change in terminal voltage of a generator
between full and no load (at constant speed) is
called the voltage regulation, usually expressed
as a percentage of the voltage at full-load.

VFL = Terminal voltage of generator at full load

63
 Parallel Operation of D.C. Generators

 In a d.c. power plant, power is usually supplied from

several generators of small ratings connected in
parallel instead of from one large generator.
 This is due to the following reasons
- Continuity of service
- Efficiency
- Maintenance and repair
- Increasing plant capacity
- Non-availability of single large unit

64
 Connecting Shunt Generators in Parallel
 The generators in a power plant are connected in parallel
through bus-bars.
 The bus-bars are heavy thick copper bars and they act as +ve
and -ve terminals.
 The positive terminals of the generators are connected to the
+ve side of bus-bars and negative terminals to the negative
side of bus-bars.
 Fig4.23 Shows shunt generator 1 connected to the bus-bars
and supplying load.
 When the load on the power plant increases beyond the
capacity of this generator, the second shunt generator 2 is
connected in parallel with the first to meet the increased load
demand
65
The procedure for paralleling generator 2 with generator 1

Figure 4.23

66
 Cont…

 The prime mover of generator 2 is brought up to the

rated speed. Now switch S4 in the field circuit of the
generator 2 is closed.
 Next circuit breaker CB-2 is closed and the excitation
of generator 2 is adjusted till it generates voltage equal
to the bus-bars voltage. This is indicated by voltmeter
V2.
 Now generator 2 is ready to be paralleled with
generator 1 then the main switch S3 is closed.

67
 Cont…
 If generator 2 delivers any current, then its generated
voltage E should be greater than the bus-bars voltage V.
In that case, current supplied by it I = (E - V)/Ra where
Ra is the resistance of the armature circuit.
 By increasing the field current (and hence induced
e.m.f. E), generator 2 can be made to supply proper
amount of load.
 The load may be shifted from one shunt generator to
another merely by adjusting the field excitation.
 Thus if generator 1 is to be shut down, the whole load
can be shifted onto generator 2 provided it has the
capacity to supply that load.
68
 Load Sharing
 The load sharing between shunt generators in parallel
can be easily regulated because of their drooping
characteristics.
 The load may be shifted from one generator to
another merely by adjusting the field excitation.

where:- E1, E2 = no-load voltages of the two generators

R1, R2 = their armature resistances
V = common terminal voltage (Bus-bars voltage)

69
 Cont…
 Thus current output of the generators depends upon
the values of E1 and E2 .These values may be changed
by field rheostats.
 The common terminal voltage (or bus-bars voltage)
will depend upon
- The e.m.f of individual generators
- The total load current supplied

70
 D.C. Motors

 DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical

energy into mechanical energy.
 It operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
 There are similarities between dc generators and dc motors.
 Both machines have rotating and stationary parts.
 Both machines use commutators and brushes to complete
their circuits.
 The windings are supplied with direct current from an
external source.
 The current flow in the windings produce magnetic field
around the respective windings.
 The two magnetic fields interact and develop a torque
which tends to rotate the armature.
71
 Principle of Operation

• When current flows in a

conductor, magnetic field is
set up about the conductor.
• If the conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, the two fields
interact and develop force
• The direction of the force is
given by Fleming's left hand
rule (motor rule) and hence
the conductor moves in the Figure .4.24

direction of force.

72
 Cont…
• Magnitude of the force experienced in the conductor is
given by
 Where: B is the field density, is the current flowing
through the conductor and is the length of conductor
in meters.
 In an actual DC motor, several coils are wound on the
rotor, all of which experience force, resulting in
rotation.
 The greater the current in the wire, or the greater the
magnetic field, the faster the wire moves because of
the greater turning force created.
73
 Cont…

 When the motor is connected to the dc Supply, a dc

current passes through the brushes and commutator to
the armature winding.
 While it passes through the commutator it is converted
in to a.c.
 so that the group of conductors under successive field
poles carries currents in the opposite directions.
 Since the armature conductors are revolving in the
magnetic field, and cut the magnetic flux and therefore
e.m.f. is induced in them as shown in figure 4.25 below.

74
 Cont…

Figure 4.25Induced voltage in the armature winding of DC motor

 This voltage is in opposition to the voltage that causes
current flow through the conductor and is referred to as a
counter-emf or back emf (Eb).
 The value of current flowing through the armature is
dependent upon the difference between the applied voltage
and this counter-voltage.
75
 Cont…

 The current due to this Eb tends to oppose the very cause

for its production according to Lenz’s law. It results in
the rotor slowing down.
 The applied voltage must be large enough to overcome
this back e.m.f. and to send the current through the
resistance of the armature.
 Thus we see that an e.m.f. is generated in both generator
and motor, therefore, there is a generator action in both
motor and generator operation.

76
 Cont…

• But in G- operation Eg produces the armature current, where as in M-

operation Eb opposes the supply voltage.
• Since the back e.m.f. is induced due to the generator action, the magnitude
is given by

In generator theory, the movement of a conductor in a magnetic field

induces voltage that causes current flow.
In motors, current from an external source is passed through the conductor
while it is in a magnetic field.
The flow of current caused movement of the conductor

77
 Magnetic Attraction & Repulsion
Electric motors utilize the principle of magnetism
and electromagnetism.
The repulsion of like poles and attraction of unlike
poles work together to produce torque and the
resulting rotation.
Thus, when a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, a force is developed.
The force causes the coil to rotate. If current is
passed through a coil of wire, the coil will have a
magnetic polarity.
If the coil is placed in a magnetic field, it will react
with the field and produce rotation.

78
Cont…

Figure 4.26

79
Voltage and Torque developed in a DC Motor
Torque Developed
 The equation for torque developed in a DC motor can
be derived as follows.
 The force on one coil of wire
 Note that l and B are vector quantities
 Since B =/A where A is the area of the coil,
 Therefore the torque for a multi turn coil with an
armature current of Ia is:
T = K ** Ia ----------------(i)

80
 Cont…

 Where  is the flux/pole in weber, K is a constant

depending on coil geometry, and Ia is the current flowing
in the armature winding.
 Note: T is a function of F and the distance, equation (i)
lumps all the constant parameters (eg.length, area and
distance) in constant K.
 The mechanical power generated is the product of the
machine T and the mechanical speed of rotation (Wm),
Pm= Wm*T =Wm*k**Ia

81
 Cont…
• It is interesting to note that the same DC machine can be
used either as a motor or as a generator, by reversing the
terminal connections.

Figure 4.27 Reversibility of a DC machine

82
 Cont…

The generated voltage is given by

Ea=Vg= Z*P**N= Ka**m

60*a
Where Z= Number of armature conductors
a = Number of parallel paths between the brushes.
p= Number of poles
= Magnetic flux per pole
N= Speed of the rotor in rpm
Ea = Kam (volts) where Wm=N/60rpm
Developed Torque, Tdev = KaIa (Newton-meter or Nm)
where m is the speed of the armature in rad/sec.,
Ia is the Armature current
Ka is the machine constant = 83
Interaction of Prime-mover, DC Generator and Load

Figure 4.28

84
Interaction of the DC Motor and Mechanical Load

Figure 4.29

85
 Power Developed in a DC Machine

Equivalence of Motor and Generator

In every generator there is a motor (Tdev opposes Tpm)
In every motor there is a generator (Ea opposes VT)

86
 Losses in DC Machine

Figure 4-30
87
 D.C. Motor Characteristics
 The three important characteristics of a d.c motor
a) Torque and Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia) Fig b
 It is the curve between armature torque Ta and armature
current Ia of a d.c motor. It is also known as electrical
characteristic of the motor.
b) Speed and armature current characteristic (N/Ia)Fig c
• It is the curve between speed N and armature current Ia of
a d.c motor.
• It is very important characteristic as it is often the deciding
factor in the selection of the motor for a particular
application.

88
 Cont…

c) Speed and torque characteristic (N/Ta) Fig d

 It is the curve between speed N and armature torque Ta of a
d.c motor. It is also known as mechanical characteristic.
Characteristics of Shunt Motors
its connection is shown in Fig. (a)
• It is generally referred to as a constant speed motor. It finds in
applications of requiring a relatively constant speed under
varying loads.
• The Ish is constant since the field winding is directly connected
to the supply voltage V which is assumed to be constant.
Hence, the flux (ф) in a shunt motor is approximately constant.

89
Characteristics of Shunt Motors

Figure 4.31

90
 Characteristic of DC Series motor

• One of the main advantages of series motor is its ability to

develop a large starting torque under load conditions, That
is, T ɤ ϕ.
• From fig 4.32 (a) it is evident that series motor develops
large starting torque to accelerate the heavy masses.
Hence it is used where large starting torque is required
such as in electric railways, electric trains and electric
vehicle
• Up to saturation point flux is proportional to field current
and hence to the armature current because Ia= Iser

91
 Cont…

• Figure 4.32(b) shows on no load the speed is dangerously

high, which result in heavy centrifugal force that damage the
motor.
• As the current increase, the N decreases. That is why, series
motors are never started on no load.
• As the N of the motor increases and also the Eb builds, the
line current decreases and also the torque reduce.
• From fig.4.32 (c) we can see that in series wound motor as
the T increases the N decreases, hence it is most suited for
the service where the motor is directly coupled to the load,
such as fans whose speed fails with increase in torque.

92
Characteristics of DC Series Motor

Figure 4.32

93
 DC Motor Speed Control
 Many applications require the speed of a motor to be
varied over a wide range.
 One of the most attractive features of DC motors in
comparison with AC motors is the ease with which
their speed can be varied.
 We know that the back emf for a separately excited
DC motor:- Eb = K *Ф *N = VT - Ia *Ra
 Rearranging the terms
Speed(N) = (VT - Ia Ra)/K Ф -------1

94
 Cont…
 From equation(1), it is evident that the speed can be
varied by using any of the following methods
Armature voltage control (By varying VT)
Field Control (By Varying Ф)
Armature resistance control (By varying Ra)
Speed control of Separately excited DC motors
Armature voltage control

This method is usually applicable to separately excited

DC motors. In this method of speed control, Ra and Ф are
kept constant.
95
 Cont…
 In normal operation, the drop across the Ra is small
compared to Eb and therefore: Eb=VT
 Since, Eb = K Ф N
Angular speed can be expressed as:
N=VT/KФ -------2
From equation (2),
 If Ф is kept constant, the N changes linearly with VT.
 As the VT is increased, the N increases and vice versa. 
 The relationship between N and applied voltage is shown in figure
(4.33) below.
 This method provides smooth variation of speed
 
96
 Cont…

Figure 4.33 : Variation of speed with applied voltage

97
 SPEED CONTROL OF SHUNT DC MOTORS

a) Variation of Flux or Field control Method:

It is seen from equation (1) above that: N α 1/Ф
Assuming magnetic linearity, Ф α Ish or N α 1/Ish.
i.e., Speed can be controlled by varying field current(Ish)
 The flux of dc motor can be changed by changing Ish with
the help of an adjustable shunt rheostat in the field circuit
 By increasing the value of total field resistance, Ish can be
reduced, and therefore N can be increased.
 Since Ish is relatively small, shunt field rheostat has to
carry only a small current, which means I2R loss is small.
 So this method is, therefore, very efficient.

98
 b) Armature or Rheostat Control Method

• This method is used when speeds below the no-load speed are
required.
• As the supply voltage is normally constant, the voltage across
the armature is varied by inserting a variable rheostat in series
with the armature circuit as shown in fig. 4.34 below.
• As controller resistance is increased; Potential difference
across the armature is decreased, thereby decreasing the
armature speed.
• From the speed/armature current characteristics, it is seen that
the greater the resistance in the armature circuit, greater is the
fall in speed.

99
 Cont…

Figure 4.34 Circuit arrangement for Rheostat Control

100
 SPEED CONTROL OF DC SERIES MOTOR

1. Flux Control Method: Variation in the flux of a Series

motor can be brought about in any one of the following
ways:
i) Field Diverters: The series winding are shunted by a
variable resistance knows as field diverter as shown in
fig. 4.35 (a).
 Any desired amount of current can be passed through
the diverter by adjusting its resistance. Hence the flux
can be decreased, consequently, the speed of the motor
increased.

101
 ii) Armature Diverter

• A diverter across the armature can be used for giving

speeds lower than the normal speed. For a given constant
load torque, if Ia is reduced due to armature diverter,
then 𝛷 must increase (∴T ɤ ϕ).
• This results an increase in current taken from the supply
which increases the flux) and a fall in speed (N α 1/Ф)
• The variations in N can be controlled by varying the
diverter resistance as shown in fig 4.35(b).

102
 iii) Tapped Field Control
 Employed in electric traction as shown in fig 4-35 (c).The
number of series field turns in the circuit can be changed at
will as shown.
 With full field, the motor runs at its minimum speed,
which can be raised in steps by cutting out some of the
series turns.

Figure 4.35 Circuit arrangement for Flux control method of Series Dc motor
103
 2. Variable Resistance in series with Motor

• By increasing the resistance in series with armature, the

voltage applied across the armature terminals can be
decreased.
• With reduced voltage across the armature, the speed is
reduced.
• However, it will be noted that since full motor current
passes through this resistance, there is a considerable
loss of power in it.

104
 Cont…

Figure 4.36Circuit arrangement for variable resistance control method of Series Dc motor

105
 DC MOTOR STARTING
• If dc motor is directly connected to a dc power supply, the
starting current will be dangerously high.
• The current drawn by the motor armature is
• At stand still Eb=0, therefore,
Since is very small, the starting current drawn by the supply
voltage is very large.
• This excessive starting current will damage the motor
• Thus, the starting current can be reduced by
1. Reducing VT at starting:- requires a variable supply voltage
2. Increasing resistance in the armature circuit:- an additional
resistance Rex can be connected in the armature circuit

106
 Example-1
1. A 100-kW, 250-V DC shunt generator has an
armature resistance of 0.05 W and field circuit
resistance of 60 W. With the generator operating at
rated voltage, determine the induced voltage at (a)
full load, and (b) half-full load

107
 Cont…
(a) At full load,
Vt=Ea-IaRa
If=250/60=4.17 A
IL_FL=100,000/250=400 A
Ia=IL_FL+If=400+4.17=404.17 A
Ea=Vt+IaRa=250+404.17*0.05=270.2 V

b) At half load,
If=250/60=4.17 A
IL_HL=50,000/250=200 A
Ia=IL_HL+If=200+4.17=204.17 A
Ea=Vt+IaRa=250+204.17*0.05=260.2 V

108
 Examples-2
2. A 75KW shunt Dc generator is operated at 230v. The
stray losses are 1810W, and shunt field circuit draws
5.35A. The armature circuit has a resistance of
0.035Ω and total brush drop is 2.2V. Draw the circuit
diagram and calculate:
a) E.m.f generated b) Total loss c) power
developed d) Efficiency at rated load.

109
110
 Example-3
3.A shunt generator gave the following results in the
O.C.C. test at a speed of 1000 r.p.m

The field resistance is adjusted to 50Ω and the terminal is

300V on load. Armature resistance is 0.1Ω and assuming
that the flux is reduced by 5% due to armature reaction,
find the power supplied to load and developed by the
generator

111
Cont…

112
 Quize
1.Two shunt generators operating in parallel deliver a total
current of 250A. One of the generators is rated 50kW and the
other 100kW. The voltage ratings of both machines are 500V
and have regulations of 6% and 4% respectively. Assuming
linear characteristics, determine:
a) The current delivered by each machine,
b) Terminal voltage
2. A 1000 V dc shunt motor has armature and field resistance 2.5
Ω and 500Ω respectively. When running on- no load, the
current taken is 6A and the speed is 1500rpm. Calculate the
speed when motor is fully loaded and the total current drawn
from the supply is 30A. Estimate the speed at this load if
c) A resistance of 3Ω is connected in series with the armature
d) The shunt field current is increased by 5%.

113
Answer-1

114
Answer-2

115
 O U
K Y
AN
TH

116