UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF SCIENCES

Academic Unit I
Bachelor of Engineering (Computer Science & Engineering)
Biology For Engineers

By
Dr. Devinder Kaur

DISCOVER . LEARN . EMPOWER

 Course Objective
• This subject is designed to impart
fundamental knowledge on basic
and emerging fields of biology
like bioinformatics.

• It is designed to impart
knowledge that how to apply
basics of biology in engineering.
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 Course Outcome
CO Title Level
Number
CO1 To develop the firm foundation in science Remember
principles and higher level of understanding in  
each of the biology sub-discipline.

CO2 To excel in career as researcher in both Understand

traditional and emerging fields of science .  

CO3 Understand ethical principles and Understand

responsibilities for science practices in society.

CO4 To learn the new areas of biology for Understand

contemporary research with interdisciplinary  
Will be covered in this lecture
approach

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 SYLLABUS
Unit-2 Biosensors and measurement system Contact Hours: 15
Chapter 1 Medical Instrumentation: Sources of biomedical Signals, Basic medical
Medical Instrumentation system, Performance requirements of medical Instrumentation
Instrumentation System, Microprocessors in Medical instruments, PC base medical Instruments,
General constraints in the design of medical Instrumentation system, Regulation
of Medical Devices.
Chapter 2 Measurement System: Specification of instruments, Statics & Dynamic
Measurement characteristics of medical instruments, Classification of errors. Statistical analysis,
Reliability, Accuracy, Fidelity, Speed of responses, Linearization of technique, and
System Data Acquisition System.
Biological sensors: Sensors/ receptors in the human body, basic organization of
Chapter 3 the nervous system- neural mechanism, Chemoreceptor: hot and cold receptors,
sensors for smell, sound, vision, Ion exchange membrane electrodes, enzyme,
Biological glucose sensors, immunosensors, & biosensors & applications of biosensors.
Sensor
 
 Measurement System
 Specification of instruments
 Statics & Dynamic characteristics of medical instruments
 Classification of errors
 Statistical analysis
 Data acquisition

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 Measurement System
• Proper measurement is crucial in the medical, biomedical, and healthcare
fields because it forms the basis of medical diagnosis, prognosis, and
evaluation.
• In fact, it is known that "measuring is the cornerstone of medical research
and clinical practice".
• Medical professionals such as doctors or clinical laboratory scientists must
have confidence in the results reported by their instruments or their
measurement methods to make the correct decision for their patient.
• While in many industries incorrect measurements would simply lead to
customer dissatisfaction or loss of money, in the medical field incorrect
measurements could be fatal and lead to loss of life.
• Hence, we can say that proper instrumentation and measurement is vital in
the medical field.
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 Classifications of Medical Instruments
Based on the activities involved
in the medical care, medical
instrumentation may be divided
into three categories:
• Diagnostic devices
• Therapeutic devices
• Monitoring devices
Medical Instruments can be
classified in the four categories:
• Quantity that Sensed
• Principle of Transduction
• Organ System
• Clinical Medicine Specialties
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 Principle of
Quantity That Sensed
Transduction

Advantage of this Resistive

classifications is that it
makes different methods Inductive
for measuring any quantity Capacitive
easy to compare. Ultrasonic (Sound waves)
• Pressure
Electrochemical (pH probe,
• Flow
• Temperature
Hydrogen Sensor)

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 Clinical Medicine
Organ System
Specialties

Isolates all important This approach is valuable for

measurements for specialists medical personnel who are
who need to know only interested in specialized
about a specific area instruments.
• Cardiovascular Systems • Paediatrics
• Pulmonary System • Obstetrics
• Nervous System • Cardiology
• Endocrine System • Radiology

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Specification of Instruments

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 Measurement Input Sources

Desired Inputs:
• Measurands that the instrument is designed to isolate.

Interfering Inputs:
• Quantities that accidentally affect the instrument as a consequence of the
principles used to acquire and process the desired inputs.

Modifying Inputs:
• Quantities that cause a change in the input–output relations of the
instrument.
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 Example: ECG Signal Measurement
• Desired Input: ECG voltage (VECG)
• Interfering Input: 60/50 Hz noise voltage, displacement currents
• Modifying Input: Orientation of the patient cables when the plane of the cable is perpendicular to
the magnetic field the magnetic interference is maximal

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Bioinstrumentation should be designed with a specific signal in mind
• Table shows a few specifications for an electrocardiograph
• The values of the specifications, which have been agreed upon by a committee,
are drawn from research, hospitals, industry, and government.

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14
 Medical Measurement Constraints
• Typical medical parameter magnitude and frequency ranges: Table 2
• Small amplitude and low frequency (AF or below to DC)
• Frequent inaccessibility due to the lack of proper measurand-sensor interface
• Not possible to turn it off or remove a part of it during measurements
• Inherent variability with time and among subjects
• Many feedback loops among physiological systems
• Unknown safety level of the externally applied energy
• Additional constraints of a medical equipment
• Reliability
• Easy to use
• Must withstand physical abuse and exposure to corrosive chemicals
• Minimized electric-shock hazards
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 Statics & Dynamic
Characteristics of Medical Instruments

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 Characteristics of Measurement Systems

• To choose the one most suited to a particular measurement

application, we have to know the system characteristics.

• The performance characteristics may be broadly divided

into two groups, namely ‘Static’ and ‘Dynamic’
characteristics.

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Static Characteristics:
• The performance criteria for the measurement of quantities when the
input is either held constant or varying very slowly.

Dynamic Characteristics:
• The relationship between the system input and output when the
measured quantity (measurand) is varying rapidly.

In practice, the characteristics of the one group may well influence the
characteristics of the other.
In order to access overall instrument performance, however, the two
groups of characteristics are normally studied separately and then a
semi-quantitative superposition is carried out.
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 Static Characteristics

Desirable Undesirable

Accuracy Range (or span)

Precision Threshold

Static Error Dead Zone

Sensitivity Hysteresis

Linearity Drift

Reproducibility

Resolution

Stability
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 Accuracy
• May be defined as the degree of closeness with which the instrument reading
approaching the true value of the quantity to be measured.
• The measured quantity may be different from the true value due to the effects of
temperature, humidity, etc.
• The accuracy of a temperature indicator, with a full scale range of 0-500°C is specified as ±0.5%,
it indicates that the measured value will always be within ± 2.5°C of the true value, if measured
through a standard instrument during the process of calibration.

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 Precision

• It is the degree of exactness for which the instrument is

designed.
• Precision indicates the repeatability or reproducibility
of an instrument (but does not indicate accuracy).
• If an instrument is used to measure the same input, but
at different instants, spread over the whole day,
successive measurements may vary randomly.

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Precision is often confused with accuracy.
High precision does not imply anything about measurement
accuracy.

Accuracy Precision

• Accuracy represents degree of • Precision represents degree of

correctness of the measured repeatability of several
value w.r.t. true value. independent measurements of
desired input at the same
• Accuracy of instrument reference conditions
depends on systematic errors. • Precision of instruments
depends on factors that cause
random or accidental errors

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23
 Static Error
• The difference between the true value of the measuring
quantity to the value shown by the measuring instrument
under not varying process conditions.

• Static error = True value of a measured variable – Instrument reading

• +ve Static error means Instrument reads high

• –ve Static error means Instrument reading low

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 Sensitivity
• The sensitivity denotes the smallest
change in the measured variable to
which the instrument responds.
• Sensitivity can be defined as the ratio
of a change in output to change in
input which causes it, in steady-state
conditions.
• The term sensitivity is some times
used to describe the maximum change
in an input signal that will not initiate
on the output.
• The usage of this term is generally
limited to linear devices, where the
The sensitivity of the instrument should be
plot of output to input magnitude is high
straight. 25
 Linearity
• The linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the
input characteristics symmetrically and linearly.
• This is the closeness to a straight line of the
relationship between the true process variable and the
measurement. i.e. deviation of transducer output curve
from a specified straight line.
• Linearity is actually a measure of nonlinearity of the
instrument.
• When we talk about sensitivity, we assume that the
input/output characteristic of the instrument to be
approximately linear.
• But in practice, it is normally nonlinear, as shown in
Fig.1.
• The linearity is defined as the maximum deviation
from the calibration curve as a percentage of the full
scale output so that the maximum deviation is
minimized. 26
 Reproducibility Resolution
• The ability of an instrument to give • It is the smallest quantity being
the same output for equal inputs measured which can be detected
applied over some period of time is with certainty by an instrument.
called reproducibility
• If the input is slowly increased from
• It is defined as ability of instrument some arbitrary input value, it will
to reproduce a group of again be found that output does not
measurements of same measured change at all until a certain
quantity, made by same observer, increment is exceeded. This
using same instrument, under same increment is called resolution.
conditions.
• The minimum change which causes
• Reproducibility does not imply the change in output is termed
accuracy. resolution.
• For example, a broken digital clock with
an AM or PM indicator gives very
reproducible values that are accurate only
once a day. 27
 Stability Tolerance
• It is the ability of an • The maximum
instrument to retain allowable error in
its performance the measurement is
throughout is specified in terms of
specified operating some value which is
life. called tolerance.

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 Range or span
• The minimum & maximum values
of a quantity for which an
instrument is designed to measure
is called its range or span.
• It defines the maximum and
minimum values of the inputs or
the outputs for which the
instrument is recommended to use.
• For example, for a temperature
measuring instrument the input range
may be 100-500°C and the output range
may be 4-20 mA.
Threshold
• If the instrument input is increased
very gradually from zero there will
be some minimum value below
which no output change can be
detected.
• This minimum value defines the
threshold of the instrument.
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 Dead Zone
• For the largest range of values of a
measured variable, to which the
instrument does not respond.
• The dead zone occurs more often
due to static friction in indicating
an instrument.
• A practical example is: Due to
static friction, a Control valve does
not open even for a large opening
signals from the controller.
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 Hysteresis The hysteresis is expressed as the
maximum hysteresis as a full scale
reading, i.e.
• Hysteresis is a phenomenon that illustrates the different output
effects when loading and unloading.
• Careful observation of the output/input relationship of a block
will sometimes reveal different results as the signals vary in
direction of the movement.
• Many times, for the increasing values of input an instrument,
may indicate one set of output values. For the decreasing values
of the input, the same instrument may indicate its different set of
output values.
• Hysteresis is defined as the magnitude of error caused in the
output for a given value of input, when this value is approached
from opposite directions ; i.e. from ascending order & then
descending order.
• Causes are backlash, elastic deformations, magnetic
characteristics, frictional effects (mainly).
• Hysteresis can be eliminated by taking readings in both direction
and then taking its arithmetic mean.
• For example, the deflection of a diaphragm type pressure gage may be
different for the same pressure, but one for increasing and other for 31
decreasing, as shown in Fig.2.
 Drift
• Drift is an undesired change in the output of a measured variable over a
period of time that is unrelated to the changes in output, operating
conditions, load.
• Drift may be caused by environmental factors mechanical vibrations,
changes in temperatures, stray electric fields, stray magnetic fields,
thermal EMFs.
• Prime sources occur as chemical structural changes and changing
mechanical stresses.
• Drift is a complex phenomenon for which the observed effects are that
the sensitivity and offset values vary.
• It also can alter the accuracy of the instrument differently at the various
amplitudes of the signal present.
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Drift may be classified into three categories:
• If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due to undue
warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.
Zero Drift: • The zero drift is defined as the deviation in the measured variable starts right from zero
in the output with time.
• All output values increase or decrease by the same absolute amount

Span Drift or • If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale, the drifts is
Sensitivity called span drift or sensitivity drift.
Drift • Error is proportional to the magnitude of input

Zonal Drift: • In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an instrument, it is called zonal drift.

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 Dynamic characteristics

• Dynamic characteristics refer to the performance of the instrument when

the input variable is changing rapidly with time.
• For example, human eye cannot detect any event whose duration is less than one-
tenth of a second; thus the dynamic performance of human eye cannot be said to be
very satisfactory.
• The dynamic performance of an instrument is normally expressed by a
differential equation relating the input and output quantities.
• It is always convenient to express the input-output dynamic characteristics
in form of a linear differential equation.
• The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are changes rapidly
with time, is called ‘dynamic characteristics’.
• The various dynamic characteristics are:
i. Speed of response ii. Measuring lag iii. Fidelity iv. Dynamic error 34
 Dynamic Characteristics

Desirable Undesirable

Speed of
Dynamic error
response

Fidelity Measuring lag

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 Speed of response Fidelity
• It is defined as the rapidity of • It is defined as the degree to
the measurement system that which a measuring
responds to the changes in instrument is capable of
the measuring variable. faithfully reproducing the
• It indicates how active and changes in input (measured
fast the system is. quantity), without any
dynamic error.

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 Dynamic error
• The difference between the true value of the
measured quantity to the value shown by the
measuring instrument under varying conditions.
• The difference between the true value of the
quantity changing with time & the value indicated
by the measurement system if no static error is
assumed.
• It is also called measurement error.
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 Measuring lag
• It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system
to changes in the measured quantity.
• Every system takes at least some time to respond, whatever time it
may be to the changes in the measured variable.
• For Example Lag occurs in temperature measurement by temperature
sensors such as Thermocouple or RTD or dial thermometer due to
scale formation on thermowell due to process liquid.
• The measuring lags are of two types:
• Retardation lag
• Time delay lag
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 Retardation lag Time delay lag

• The response of the • In this case after the

measurement begins application of input,  the
immediately after the response of the
change in measured measurement system
quantity has occurred. begins with some dead
times.

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Classification of Errors

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 Errors are normally classified in three
categories:

•Systematic errors
•Random errors
•Gross errors (Blunders)
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 Systematic Errors
• Errors caused by experiments procedure.
• These are errors caused by the way in which the experiment was
conducted.  In other words, they are caused by the design of the system.
• Poor procedure, or poor execution leads to more errors.
• Example:
• Construction of helicopters
• Storage of helicopters
• Dropping method for helicopters
• A system of starting and stopping the timer
• Errors of this type result in measured values that are consistently too high or
consistently too low.
• Systematic errors may be of four kinds:
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Instrumental:
• For example, a poorly calibrated instrument such as a thermometer that reads 102 oC when
immersed in boiling water and 2oC when immersed in ice water at atmospheric pressure.
• Such a thermometer would result in measured values that are consistently too high.

Observational:
• For example, Parallax in reading a meter scale.

Environmental:
• For example, an electrical power ìbrown outî that causes measured currents to be consistently
too low.

Theoretical:
• Due to simplification of the model system or approximations in the equations describing it.
• For example, if your theory says that the temperature of the surrounding will not affect the
readings taken when it actually does, then this factor will introduce a source of error.
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 Effects of Systematic Error
• Major systematic errors ruin experiments
• Systematic errors can not be eliminated by averaging.
• In principle, they can always be eliminated by changing
the way in which the experiment was done. 
• In actual fact though, you may not even know that the
error exists.
• The possible way of eliminating systematic error is the
replacement of instruments.

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 Random Error
• These errors are unpredictable.
• They are chance variations in the measurements over which you as
experimenter have little or no control. 
• There is just as great a chance that the measurement is too big as that it
is too small.
• Since the errors are equally likely to be high as low, averaging a
sufficiently large number of results will, in principle, reduce their
effect.
• Example: If timing was done correctly, stopping the timer. Some times you
will stop it too early, some times you will stop it a little late.
• Large sample size and averaging usually fixes random errors.
• Random errors, unlike systematic errors, can often be quantified by
statistical analysis, therefore, the effects of random errors on the quantity
or physical law under investigation can often be determined. 45
 Possible sources of random errors are as follows:

Observational:

• For example, errors in judgment of an observer

when reading the scale of a measuring device to the
smallest division.

Environmental:

• For example, unpredictable fluctuations in line

voltage, temperature, or mechanical vibrations of
equipment.
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 Gross Errors (Blunders)
• A final source of error, called a blunder or gross error, is an outright
mistake.
• These errors occur due to carelessness or lack of experience of a human
• A person may record a wrong value, misread a scale, forget a digit when
reading a scale or recording a measurement, or make a similar blunder.
• These blunder should stick out like sore thumbs if we make multiple
measurements or if one person checks the work of another.
• These errors also occur due to incorrect adjustments of instruments
• These errors cannot be treated mathematically
• These errors are also called ‘personal errors’.
• Blunders should not be included in the analysis of data.

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Statistical Analysis

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Statistical analysis means investigating trends, patterns, and relationships using
quantitative data.
It is an important research tool used by scientists, governments, businesses, and other
organizations.

To draw valid conclusions, statistical analysis requires careful planning from the very
start of the research process.
You need to specify your hypothesis and make decisions about your research design,
sample size, and sampling procedure.

After collecting data from your sample, you can organize and summarize the data using
descriptive statistics.
Then, you can use inferential statistics to formally test hypotheses and make estimates
about the population.
Finally, you can interpret and generalize your findings.
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Measurement Statistical Analysis (MSA)

• If measurements are used to guide decisions, then it follows logically that the more
error there is in the measurements, the more error there will be in the decisions based
on those measurements. 
• The purpose of Measurement System Analysis is to qualify a measurement
system for use by quantifying its accuracy, precision, and stability.

Why perform an MSA? 

• Measurement Statistical Analysis establishes confidence in data collection methods to

verify the integrity of captured data used in other quality studies.
• This process includes evaluating measurement instruments, test methods, and data
collection techniques.
• MSA helps manufacturers make informed decisions about their production processes
and products. 
• Measurement Statistical Analysis is considered as a core tool in improving the quality
of decisions made through improving the quality of data used. 50
 STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF MEASUREMENT DATA
• Out of the various possible errors, the random errors cannot be
determined in the ordinary process of measurements.
• Such errors are treated mathematically
• The mathematical analysis of the various measurements is
called statistical analysis of the data’.
• For such statistical analysis, the same reading is taken number
of times, generally using different observers, different
instruments & by different ways of measurement.
• The statistical analysis helps to determine analytically the
uncertainty of the final test results.
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 Application of Statistics

• Design experiments or clinical studies

• Summarize, explore, analyze, and present data
• Draw inferences from data by estimation or hypothesis
testing
• Evaluate diagnostic procedure
• Assist clinical decision making
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 DATA ACQUISITION
• DATA ACQUISITION is the process of sampling signals that measure
real world physical conditions and converting the resulting samples into
digital numeric values that can be manipulated by a computer.
• Data acquisition, or DAQ as it is often referred, is the process of
digitizing data from the world around us so it can be displayed,
analyzed, and stored in a computer.
• A simple example is the process of measuring the temperature in a room as a
digital value using a sensor such as a thermocouple.
• Modern data acquisition systems can include the addition of data
analysis and reporting software, network connectivity, and remote
control and monitoring options.
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 Components of a Data Acquisition System
• All data acquisition systems consist of three essential elements
• Sensor that convert physical parameters to electrical signals
• Signal conditioning circuitry to convert sensor signals into a form that can be
converted to digital values.
• Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC), which convert conditioned sensor
signals to digital values.

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 Objective of Data Acquisition
• It must acquire the necessary data, at correct speed and at correct
time.
• It must monitor the complete plant operation to maintain on line
and safe operations.
• It must be able to collect, summaries and store data for diagnosis
of operation and record purpose.
• It must be flexible and capable of being expanded for future
requirements.
• It must be able to compute unit performance indices using on-
line, real time data.
• It must be reliable, easy to operate and must be user friendly.
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 REFERENCES
o C. R. Balamurugan and D. Periazhaagar Basics of Biomedical Instrumentation. Magnus Publications, Chennai ISBN: 978-
81-939626-7-1
o Gupta, P.K.. Cytology, Genetics and Molecular Biology, Rastogi Publishers, Meerut, 1993.
o Roit I.M., Brostoff J. and Male D. Mosby .Immunology (6 th Edition) by, An imprint of Elsevier Sci Ltd., 2002.
o G. Webster , Medical Instrumentation: Application And Design, 3rd edition ,Wiley Publishers
o D Reddy, Biomedical Signal Processing, Tata Mcgraw Hill Publications.
o Sergio Cerutti Advanced Methods of Biomedical Signal Processing, Oxford Publications.
o B. Jacobson, J.G. Webster, Medical and Clinical Engineering, Prentice Hall, International.
o Cromwell, Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurements, Prentice Hall, International.
o R.S. Khandupur, Handbook of Biomedical Instrumentation, - Tata McGraw Hill
o Leslie Cromwell, Fred J. Weibell, Erich A. Pfeiffer, "Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurements", Pearson Education.
o https://nptel.ac.in/courses/121/106/121106008/
• http://mediatoget.blogspot.in/2012/01/static-dynamic-characteristicsof.htm
THANK YOU

For queries
Email: devinder.e11172@cumail.in

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