Media & Contemporary

Issues
PR 202
Course Outline
Objectives
• The students will be able to
• Analyse local, national and international affairs which are part of agenda
setting and their impact
• Explore the effectiveness of media in cultivating public relations, and focus on
advertising activities in business firms and organizations
• Get an exposure to media and contemporary issues that have direct or indirect
influence on public relations and advertising
Course Outline
Mode of Delivery
• Lectures
• Group discussion
• Presentations
Course Outline
Course Duration
• 15 Lecture hours
• 15 seminar hours
Course Outline
Course Assessment
• This course is examinable.
• All students must satisfactorily complete the course by attending classes regularly, completing the required
course works assignments (at least two assignments and two tests).
Modules
Module One
• Defining media and freedom of expression
• Primary reasons to why media should enjoy freedom of expression
Modules
Module Two
• Theories of mass media and their critiques
• Liberation theory
• Social responsibility theory
• Former Soviet socialist theory
Modules
Module Three
• Concept of social realities
 Audience side factors
 Audience formation
 Audience experiences
Modules
Module Four
• Specialised reporting
 Business
 Environment
Modules
Module Five
• Why Study media content
 Describing and comparing media output
 Comparing media with social reality
 Media reflection of social and cultural values and beliefs
 Functions and effects of Media
 Evaluating media performance
 Assessing organization bias
 Audience analysis
 Question of genre, textual and discourse analysis
Modules
Module Six
• Nine Ideas in strengthening press release about civics
 Get it first
 Expand sources and voices
 Ask better questions
 See more possibilities for framing stories
 Write harder
 Improve story and plan meetings
 Create more meaningful conversations
 Bridge civic layers
 Uncover journalists preconceived views or biases
Modules
Module Seven
• Process of media effects
 Propaganda
 Individual response
 Media Campaign
 News learning
Modules
Module Eight
• Contemporary media and advertising
- Pressure and interest groups
- Relations with owners and clients
- Proprietors influence
- Influence of advertisers
- Relation with the audience
- Hostility to the audience
- Alternative view
Modules
Module Nine
• Public relations crisis
- Collective reaction effects
- Panic and rumors
- Civil disorder
- Media and violence
Modules
Module Ten
• Contemporary media
- Expectancy value theory
- Audience side factors
- Media side factors
- An integrated model of the media choice
- Media use and everyday life
- Global trade in media culture
Reference
• George, Vic and Paul Wilding (2002), Globalization and Human Welfare, New York, Palgrave.
• Lechner, Frank J. and John Boli (eds) (2000), The Globalization Reader, Massachusetts, Blackwell
Publishers Inc.
• Mcquail, Denis (2005), , Mass Communication Theory, 5th Edition, New Delhi, Vistaar
Publications.
• Okgbo, Charles (ed) (1995), Media and sustainable Development, Nairobi, African Council for
Communication Education.
• Stiglitz, Joseph (2002), Globalization and its Discontents, New York, Penguin.
• Williams, Kevin (2003), Understanding Media Theory, New York, Arnold.
• World Bank (2002), The Right to Tell: The Role of Mass Media in Economic Development,
Washington.
Media & Contemporary
Issues
PR 202
 Module One:

Defining Media
&
Freedom of Expression
Defining Media
• The media is not a monolithic entity but rather a broad term encompassing a variety
of content provided to the public, over a range of platforms.
• There is no closed list of content provided by the media: news, politics, business,
current affairs, entertainment, motoring, gardening, religion, home decor, fashion,
food, celebrity and lifestyle are some of the many topics covered by the media.
• Media refers to all means of communication that provide public with news,
entertainment, education, data or promotional messages, usually along with
advertising.
• Media includes every broadcasting, narrowcasting medium such as TV, Radio,
Magazines, telephones, Newspaper, internet etc.
Importance of Media
1. Media is the most important tool of communication
2. The word global village has been given to the world just because of media
3. Media is important in building a strong nation
4. Media is very integral part of peoples lives therefore they generate popular interest
and debate about any social problem
5. Media affects people's perceptions and priorities their thinking about the political
contents.
6. Media shapes the public's behavior about the issues and plays vital role in
highlighting certain attributes of issues
7. Media of any country is reflection of that country.
Advantages of Media
1. Political analysis
• Raises people's voice and clearly asks the real point of the crisis.
• analyze government actions, either in favor or against the masses and develop
the opinions of the experts.
• serving as true democratic notion of people's participation.
• The general peoples' criticism, analysis, and comments are added. which also
act as a catharsis.
Advantages of Media
2. Economic analysis
• Shows government's projects internationally to get foreign investment by
projecting the benefits of the enterprise.
• It represents new business trends going in the world and offering the new
opportunities for the investors Performance of stock exchange keeps update the
investors.
• Spreads technical education to learn the working of the machinery
Advantages of Media
3. Advertising
• Advertising to maintain competition among various companies which facilitates
the public. Like mobile phones and their lowering prices.
• Can be attention grabbers if they are done well.
• Can give top-of-mind awareness.
• Gets product name in front of people
Advantages of Media
4. Social awareness
• Changes moods and behavior of people.
• Presents complicated topics through easy to understand approach e.g child
marriage, FGM, superstitions.
• Information about life styles and standards
• Information about new opportunities
• Creates civic sense.
Advantages of Media
5. Explains religious issues
• Provide true view of religious issues from competent scholars.
• Provides solutions/answers of publics questions on religious issues.
• Brings awareness about religious events and practices e.g easter, fasting, the
holy Ramadan.
Advantages of Media
6. Education
• Media educates people by giving information about food, health, housing,
sanitation, employment, agriculture, industry, environment, science, technology
etc.
• Radio is very useful source of information and education both in urban and
rural areas in developing countries.
• The print media predominant source of education Eg: Newspaper, Journals etc.
Advantages of Media
7. Sports and entertainment
• Mass media also entertains people.
• Film, television, radio are increasingly subjected to commercialization via
entertainment.
• Television is nation's number one entertainment medium.
• Media has become entertainment industry; it satisfies all segments of our
society.
• It promotes sports in society and creates healthy activities among people
Disadvantages of Media
1. Creates social evils
2. Moral vacuum
3. Westernization
4. Not developing national image
5. Time wastage
6. Materialism
7. Weakening religious impressions
8. Exaggeration
9. Dangers to socialization
10. Sensationalizing
11. Overloaded with information
Role of Media
1. Public watchdog
• Reporting on government
• Economic development
• Social issues
2. Media as detective
• the press is able to investigate wrongdoing by public officials. Such wrongdoing would include
perpetrating fraud or engaging in corruption to divert, and personally ben- efit from, public funds or
other public resources.
3. Media as a public educator
4. Media as a democracy and good governance advocate
5. Media as a catalyst for democracy and development
“A key ingredient of an effective development strategy is knowledge transmission and enhanced transparency. To reduce poverty, we must liberate
access to information and improve the quality of information. People with more information are empowered to make better choices. For these
reasons, I have long argued that a free press is not a luxury. It is at the core of equitable development. The media can expose corruption. They can
keep a check on public policy by throwing a spotlight on government action. They let people voice diverse opinions on governance and reform and
help build public consensus to bring about change. former president of the World Bank, the late James Wolfensohn,
Freedom of Expression
Universal Declaration of human right

Article 19

Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes
freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart
information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.
Freedom of Expression
Universal Declaration of human right

• Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states: ‘All human beings are
born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and
conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.’
• The first sentence of Article 2 states: ‘Everyone is entitled to all the rights and
freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race,
colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin,
property, birth or other status.’
• The first sentence of Article 7 states: ‘All are equal before the law and are entitled
without any distinction to equal protection of the law.’
Freedom of Expression
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

• The Preamble to the UN International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights3

(ICCPR), which was adopted by the UN in 1966 and came into force in 1976,
reaffirms that ‘recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable
rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and
peace in the world’ and, consequently, that rights ‘derive from the inherent dignity of
the human person’.
Freedom of Expression
The International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

• The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)

which sets out several economic, social and cultural rights, was adopted by the
United Nations in 1966 and came into force in 1976.
• It too reaffirms that ‘recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and
inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom,
justice and peace in the world’ and, consequently, that rights ‘derive from the
inherent dignity of the human person’.
Freedom of Expression
The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights
• The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights,5 known as the (Banjul Charter),
adopted by the Organization of African Unity and later by the African Union (AU),
entered into force in 1986.
• The preamble to the Banjul Charter specifically considers that: ‘freedom, equality,
justice and dignity are essential objectives for the achievement of the legitimate
aspirations of the African peoples’.

` Article 2 of the Banjul Charter states that:

• Every individual shall be entitled to the rights and freedoms recognised and
guaranteed in the present Charter without distinction of any kind such as race,
ethnic group, colour, sex, language, religion, political or any other opinion,
national and social origin, fortune, birth or any status.
Importance of Freedom of Expression to
Media
• Share truthful and accurate information
• Increase accountability
• Increase citizens participation
• Promote equality
• Increase possibility for change and innovation
• Freedom of expression is critical to democracy
• Freedom of expression is important in the search for the truth in the market
place of ideas
Threats to freedom of Expression
• Government
• Legal systems
• Attacks on journalists, CSOs and Whistleblowers
• Online rolling
• Self-censorship
Theories of Mass Media
Media Theories _ Introduction
• Social science is controversial because it suggests causal relationships
between things in the environment, people’s attitudes, values and
behaviors. Society and media relationship is a causal relationship.
• Understanding the nature of theory in the scholarly world involves a
consideration of two issues:
• To develop a shared understanding of what a theory is.
• How theory functions as a vehicle toward enhancing our understanding
of the social world.
Media Theories _ Introduction
• Theory refers to supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something,
especially one based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained.
• A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can
incorporate laws, hypotheses and facts
• Theory is any set of ideas which can help make sense of a phenomenon, guide action
or predict a consequence.
• Theories help us understand or explain phenomena we observe in social world. They
are the net with which we catch the world or the way in which we sense of the social
life.
• Theories are stories about how and why events occur… Scientific theories begin with
the assumption that the universe, including the social universe created by acting human
beings, reveals certain basic and fundamental properties that explain the ebb and flow
of events in specific process. Theory is also defined as scholars’ best representation
of some state of affairs based on systematic observation.
Kinds of Theories
•According to McQuail there are four kinds of theories

1. Social scientific theory

2. Normative theory
3. Operational theory
4. Everyday theory
 • “The basis of our government being the opinion of the people, the very
first object should be to keep that right; and were it left to me to decide
whether we should have a government without newspapers or
newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate a moment to
prefer the latter.”
–Thomas Jefferson, the third president of United States (1787)

Shraddha Bajracharya, "Libertarian Theory of Mass Communication," in Businesstopia, January 6, 2018, 

https://www.businesstopia.net/mass-communication/libertarian-theory-mass-communication.
Focus area
Our attention will be on the normative theory as this is predominantly used
to guide and legitimize most large media in the world.

We will discuss about;

1.Authoritarian theory
2.Libertarian theory
3.Social responsibility theory
4.Soviet media theory
Normative Theory
• A Normative theory describes an ideal way for a media system to be
controlled and operated by the government, authority, leader and public.
• Normative theories of press are not providing any scientific explanations or
prediction.
• At the same these “four theories of press” came from different sources and
backgrounds
• Media practitioners, social critics and academics were also involved to
develop these normative theories.
• Normative theories are more focused in the relationship between Press and
the Government than press and the audience.
• These theories are about the ownership of the media and who controls the
media in the country
Authoritarian Theory
• Authoritarian theory of mass communication originated from the
philosophy of Plato (407-327 BC)
• The English monarchs used this approach when printing press was
invented by censoring, licensing, taxation and making laws.
• It is a normative theory of mass communication where mass media is
influenced and overpowered by power and authority in the nations.
• It is recognized in 1956 by three professors of communication fred S.
siebert, theodore peterson and wilbur schramm.
• Developed in the 16th and 17th century in England
Authoritarian Theory Major Assumptions
1. Authoritarians are necessary to control the media.
2. The press is an instrument to enhance the ruler's power in the country.
3. The authorities have all rights to permit any media and control it by
providing license to the media and make certain censorship.
Features of Authoritarian Theory
1. Direct control of the media by government and authorities
2. Power exercised to control media through censorship
3. Control by the powerful ruling minorities or a group of ruling
majorities
4. Media has no power to criticize the government, its work, decisions
and policies
5. Media can not offend the ruling parties in any way
6. Punishment and threats are given to the people who try to offend the
government and the powerful
Features of Authoritarian Theory
7. Licensing of media by the state and giving limited rights (registration)
8. Cancelation of license if the media does anything wrong to the
government
9. Clear limits on what media can publish
10. Ownership is mostly private
11. Media is tool for propaganda
12. Control might be on all issues
13. Media is used as a weapon or an instrument to strengthen the power of
the government
Strength of Authoritarian Theory
• This approach is sometimes better for resolving social and cultural
conflict.
• It motivates people to work for the country and its people.
• Act as a gatekeeper and prevent the media that act irresponsibly.
• The theory can be used for establishing propaganda
Weaknesses of Authoritarian Theory
• Common people are taken as less intelligent and as an easy target to
manipulate.
• The ruling class uses the media only for their own benefits.
• Limiting freedom of media and freedom of expression
Libertarian theory
• Libertarian theory or the Free Press Theory is one of the Normative Theory of mass
communication where media or press is given absolute freedom to publish anything
at any time and acts as a watchdog.
• The theory came from the libertarian thoughts of Europe during the 16th century after
the invention of printing press and after the press movement. It was advocated by
many renowned personalities like Lao Tzu, John Locke, John Milton, John Stuart
Mill, Thomas Jefferson, etc. and is still famous in England and America.
• The theory believes in freedom of thought and individualism. There is no control of
authority and everybody has the right to voice their opinion. There is also no
censorship and government must not hold any power to control and suppress media.
Libertarian theory_Cont
• Libertarian theory arose in opposition to authoritarian theory—an idea that placed
all forms of communication under the control of a governing elite or authorities
(Siebert, Peterson, and Schramm, 1956)
• Authorities justified their control as a means to protect and preserve a divinely
ordained social order.
• In most countries, this control rested in the hands of a king, who in turn granted royal
charters or li- censes to media practitioners
• Practitioners could be jailed for violating their charters, and charters or licenses could
be revoked
• Censorship of all types, therefore, was easily possible.
• Authoritarian control tended to be exercised in arbitrary, erratic ways.
• Sometimes considerable freedom might exist to publicize minority viewpoints and
culture, as long as authorities didn’t perceive a direct threat to their power
Libertarian theory (Cont)
• Libertarian theory advocates for:
• Flow of all kinds of information.
• All of the people are subjected to interpret and decide which information they
need and the authenticity of the information. Rationality of human beings makes
them able to do so.
• The press should not restrict any information, even criticizing the policies.
• Media has enormous power, abuse of power can be dealt legally.
Characteristics of Libertarian Theory
1. There is absolute freedom to media, media plays the role of a watchdog.
2. In libertarian theory, there is freedom of thought and expression.
3. There is also freedom of information and individualism.
4. No censorship of any kind is to be done.
5. There is high competition among alternative ideas and thoughts.
Characteristics of Libertarian Theory
6. The government does not own the media and media is a different body in
the functioning of the state.
7. Media is accountable to the law of the country.
8. Media must follow a code of conduct.
9. Media encourages pluralist truths like both side of the same story.
10. The media accepts a Laissez-faire approach in which there are not many
set rules that they have to follow. They can work as they want.
Strengths of Libertarian Theory
1. Media can give true information without any control.
2. There is no censorship.
3. All individuals can express their opinions and thoughts in the media
openly.
4. The theory encourages healthy competition among the thoughts and
ideas.
5. Every work will be transparent to all.
6. It checks the government and the state authorities and also prevents
corruption.
7. It functions with democracy.
Weaknesses/Criticism of Libertarian Theory
1. Media might not always act responsibly.
2. Individuals might not always have good intentions and ethics.
3. People can not always make rational judgments.
4. Freedom of different type of people, their ideas, opinions, school
of thoughts, and group objectives can be in a conflict.
5. Media can misuse its power and harm other people’s privacy and
dignity.
6. Media might defame, cause sedition, libel or slander, be
immodest, publish obscenity and cause trouble.
7. Media might challenge the security of the state.
Social responsibility theory_Introduction
• Despite moves toward professionalization and self-regulation, pressure
for greater government regulation of media mounted throughout World
War II and contin- ued during the anti-Communist agitation that followed
• Henry Luce, CEO of Time Inc., provided funding for an independent
commission to make recommendations concerning the role of the press
• The Hutchins Commission on Freedom of the Press was established in
1942 and released a major report of its findings in 1947 (Davis, 1990;
Mclntyre, 1987)
• Its members consisted of lea- ders from many areas of society, including
academics, politicians, and heads of social groups.
Social responsibility theory Introduction
• Commission members were sharply divided between those who held
strongly Libertarian views and those who thought some form of press
regulation was necessary
• Those who favored regulation were fearful that the “marketplace of ideas”
was much too vulnerable to subversion by antidemocratic forces
• The synthesis of ideas put forward in the Hutchins Commission report has
be- come known as the Social Responsibility Theory of the Press (Siebert,
Peterson, and Schramm, 1956).
• It emphasized the need for an independent press that scrutinizes other
social institutions and provides objective, accurate news reports
Social responsibility theory Introduction
• The most innovative feature of social responsibility theory was its call for
media to be responsible for fostering productive and creative “Great
Communities.” It said that media should do this by prioritizing cultural
pluralism by becoming the voice of all the people not just elite groups
or groups that had dominated national, regional, or local culture in the
past.
• Social responsibility theory challenged media professionals’ ingenuity to
develop new ways of serving their communities.
• It encouraged them to see themselves as front-line participants in the battle
to preserve democracy in a world drifting inexorably toward
totalitarianism.
• By helping pluralistic groups, media were building a wall to protect
democ- racy from external and internal foes
Principles of Social responsibility Theory
Dennis McQuail in 1987 summarized the basic principles of social
responsibility theory as the following:-
1. Media should accept and fulfill certain obligations to society.
2. These obligations are mainly to be met by setting high or
professional standards of informativeness, truth, accuracy, objectivity
and balance.
3. In accepting and applying these obligations, media should be
selfregulating within the framework of law and established institutions.
4. The media should avoid whatever might lead to crime, violence or civil
disorder or give offense to minority groups.
Principles of Social responsibility Theory
5. The media as a whole should be pluralist and reflect the diversity of
their society, giving access to various points of view and to rights of
reply.
6. Society and the public have a right to expect high standards of
performance, and intervention can be justified to secure the public good.
7. Journalists and media professionals should be accountable to society as
well as to employers and the market
Features of Social responsibility Theory
1. Private press ownership
2. Helps democracy prosper
3. Media as a democratic institution
4. Public participation
5. Emphasis on social responsibility
6. Self-regulation in media
Features of Social responsibility Theory
6. Code of ethics
7. Professional standards
8. Media role of criticizing government
9. Helping eradicate social problems
10. Pluralistic media (including ideas and people from different groups)
11. Social benefit
Strengths of social responsibility Theory
1. Values media responsibility
2. Values audience responsibility
3. Limits government intrusion in media operation
4. Allows reasonable government control of media
5. Values diversity and pluralism
6. Aids the “powerless”
7. Appeals to the best instincts of media practitioners and audiences
Weaknesses of social responsibility Theory
1. Is overly optimistic about media’s willingness to meet responsibility
2. Is overly optimistic about individual responsibility
3. Underestimates power of profit motivation and competition
4. Legitimizes status quo
Former soviet socialist theory_Intro
• After the 1917th revolution, the Soviet Union was restructured with new
political system based on the Marxist- Leninist principles.
• So the Soviet originates a theory from Marxist, Leninist and Stalinist
thoughts, with mixture of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ideology is
called “Soviet Media Theory” is also known as “The Communist Media
Theory”.
• The same theory was developed and followed by Adolf Hitler’s Nazi in
Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy.
Former soviet socialist theory_Intro
• After the 1917th revolution, the Soviet Union was restructured with new
political system based on the Marxist- Leninist principles.
• So the Soviet originates a theory from Marxist, Leninist and Stalinist
thoughts, with mixture of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ideology is
called “Soviet Media Theory” is also known as “The Communist Media
Theory”.
• The same theory was developed and followed by Adolf Hitler’s Nazi in
Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy.
• The theory is close to Authoritarian theory but positive in outlook
Former soviet socialist theory_Intro
• The government undertake or controls the total media and communication to
serve working classes and their interest.
• Theory says the state have absolute power to control any media for the benefits
of people.
• They put end to the private ownership of the press and other media.
• The government media provide positive thoughts to create a strong socialized
society as well as providing information, education, entertainment, motivation
and mobilization.
• The theory describe the whole purpose of the mass media is to educate the
greater masses of working class or workers.
• The public was encouraged to give feedback which would able to create
interests towards the media.
Features of soviet socialist theory
1. To control media
2. Create Classless society
3. State have absolute power to control any media for the benefits of people
4. No absolute freedom
5. Create a strong socialized society
6. Educate the greater masses of working class
7. The media’s main purpose is to act as a tool for government propaganda
Features of soviet socialist theory
8. Encourage to give feedback(key difference b/w Authoritarian and this)
9. Private ownership is not allowed
10. Restriction based on the nation interest
11. Journalist or press should support the leadership rather than a watchdog.
Advantages of soviet socialist theory
1. Media covers nation interest rather than personal
2. Media performs positive functions for society
3. Social welfare and control
4. Feedback’s importance and it’s influence
5. Truthful information
6. Promote national culture
7. Media reports less on the bad things that happen under communism
Disadvantages of soviet socialist theory
1. If the leadership is wrong the whole nation will suffer
2. Emphasize the bad things that happen in democratic areas
3. Criticism is prohibited
4. Controlled freedom
5. Hampers personal growth