MATERIAL SCIENCE

DAM14203
Chapter 3: CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS –
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
INTRODUCTION
 Many material, when in service, are subjected to
forces or loads.
 It is necessary to know the characteristics of the
material from which it is made such that
 any resulting deformation will not be
excessive and fracture will not occur.
 Mechanical behavior – the relationship between
its response or deformation to an applied load or
force.
Examples : strength, hardness, ductility &
2 stiffness
  Factors to be considered in service condition ;

1. Types of applied load – tensile, compression

or shear.

2. Magnitude of applied load – constant or

fluctuate with time.

3. Application time – a fraction of second or

extends of years.

4. Service temperature
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  Mechanical properties of materials are
ascertained – performing laboratory
experiments.

 Standardized testing techniques – to ensure the

consistency in the tests conducted and in the
interpretation of results.

 Examples : ASTM (American Society for Testing

and Materials), ISO, USD etc.
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 CONCEPTS OF STRESS AND STRAIN
If the load is ;
 static or changes relatively slowly with time
 applied uniformly over a cross section or
surface of a member
 the mechanical behavior may be ascertained
by a simple stress-strain test
(conducted at room temperature)
 Three principle ways of applied load ;

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 tensile, compression and shear (torsion)
Figure 3.1: Schematic
illustration of how
different types of load
produce an elongation
and positive linear strain.
(a) tensile load.
(b) compression load.
(c) Shear strain.
(d) torsion deformation.

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 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
 Degree of structure deforms or strains – depends on the magnitude of an imposed
stress.

  E
Stress Strain
(N/m2 = Pa)
Young’s Modulus
(modulus of elasticity)
(GPa)

• Elastic deformation – deformation in which stress and

strain are proportional.
 when the applied load is released, the piece returns
to its original shape.
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 Modulus of elasticity, E
- stiffness, or a material’s resistance to
elastic deformation.
- important parameter for computing
elastic deflections.

Figure 3.2 : Schematic stress-strain

diagram showing linear elastic
deformation for loading and unloading
cycles

8  E , stiffness , elastic strain 

 Figure 3.3 : Schematic stress-strain diagram showing non-linear elastic
behavior, and how secant and tangent moduli are determined.
Examples : gray cast iron, concrete and many polymers.
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 Figure 3.4 : Plot of modulus of elasticity versus temperature for tungsten, steel and
aluminium.
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 Metals deform when subjected to uniaxial tensile force.

 ELASTIC DEFORMATION A
___
 Regain original dimensions when force removed
Ao
 Atoms return to original positions Δl
___
• Consider a cylindrical rod subjected to
uniaxial force
• Engineering stress, σ:
lo lo
σ = F/Ao
• Engineering strain, ε:
ε = l – lo = Δl
lo l
F
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  Example
A 1.25 cm diameter bar is subjected to a load of 2500 kg.
calculate the engineering stress on the bar in
megapascals (MPa). Acceleration of gravity is 9.81 ms-2.

 Solution

F = ma = (2500 kg)(9.81 ms-2) = 24,500 N

σ = F/Ao
= F/(π/4)(d2)
= 24,500 N / (π/4)(0.0125 m)2
= (2 x 108 Pa)(1 MPa / 106 Pa) = 200 MPa
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  Example
Pure aluminium 0.5 cm width, 0.040 cm
thick and 8 cm length which has gage
markings 2 cm apart in the middle of the
sample is strained so that the gage
markings are 2.65 cm apart. Calculate

2.65 cm
engineering strain elongation which the

2 cm
sample undergoes

8 cm
 Solution :

ε = l – lo
lo
= Δl = (2.65 cm – 2.00 cm)
lo 2.00 cm

= 0.65 cm = 0.325
13 2.00 cm
% elongation = 0.325 x 100% = 32.5 %
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION
 Most metallic materials, elastic deformation persists only
to strains of about 0.005.

 PLASTIC DEFORMATION ;

 Cannot fully recover to original dimensions.

 Atoms permanently displaced and take up new
positions.
- involved the breaking of bonds with original
atom neighbors and then reforming bonds with
new neighbors, upon removal of the stress they
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do not return to their original positions.
TENSILE TEST
 Purpose – to evaluate
strength of materials.
 Sample is pulled to failure
in a relatively short time at
a constant rate.
 Plot of engineering stress
vs. engineering strain can
be constructed.

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  From a stress-strain
diagram we can obtain;

1) Modulus of elasticity, E
(where E = σ/ε)

2) Yield strength at 0.2%*

offset, σy

3) Ultimate tensile
strength, σUTS

4) Percent elongation at
fracture

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5) Percent reduction in Figure 3.5 : Stress-strain diagram
Figure 3.6 :
(a) Typical stress-strain
behavior for a metal
showing elastic &
plastic deformations,
the yield strength y as
determined using the
0.002 strain offset
method.
(b) Stress-strain behavior
of some steels
demonstrating the yield
point phenomenon.

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 Figure 3.7 : Typical engineering stress-strain behavior to fracture, point F. TS is the
tensile strength. The circular insets represent the geometry of the deformed specimen at
various points along the curve.
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 Figure 3.9 :
Figure 3.8 :
Stress-strain behavior for ductile Engineering stress-strain
and brittle materials. behavior for iron at three
temperatures
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 Table 3.1 : Room-Temperature Elastic and Shear Moduli, and Poisson’s
Ratio for Various Metal Alloys

 l  Where,
  E    E l = elongation
 lo  Lo = original length
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  True stress :

σ t = F/Ai

 True strain:

ε t = ln (li/lo)
= ln (Ao/Ai)

(assume the volume is

constant)

lo - original gage length

li – instantaneous extended gage
length
Ao – original area
21 Ai – instantaneous minimum
Figure 3.10 : True stress and Engineering
cross-sectional area of sample stress
  Example :

Load applied to specimen = 17,000 lb

Initial specimen diameter, do = 0.500 in
Diameter of specimen under 17K lb load, di = 0.472 in

 Solution :

Ao = (π/4)do2 = (π/4)(0.500)2 = 0.196 in2

Ai = (π/4)di2 = (π/4)(0.472)2 = 0.175 in2

Eng. Stress, E = F/Ao = 17,000/0.196 = 86,700 psi

Eng. Strain, E = Δl/l =(Ao/Ai) - 1 = (0.196/0.175) -1 = 0.12

True Stress, T = F/Ai = 17,000/0.175 = 97,000 psi

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True Strain, T = ln(li/lo) = ln(Ao/Ai) = ln(0.196/0.175) = 0.113
 HARDNESS TEST
 Hardness – the resistance of a metal to permanent
(plastic) deformation.

 Four common hardness test :

1. Brinell
2. Vickers
3. Knoop
4. Rockwell

 Non-destructive test
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 Table 3.2 : Hardness Testing Techniques

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IMPACT TEST
 To ascertain the fracture characteristics of materials.
 Fracture – separation of a solid under stress into two or
more parts.
 Two types of impact test : IZOD or CHARPY.

FRACTURE

DUCTILE
- Slow crack
propagation

BRITTLE
- Rapid crack
propagation

25 DUCTILE +
BRITTLE
 (b) Charpy specimen

(a) Impact machine

Figure 3.11 : A schematic drawing of an impact (c) Izod specimen

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specimens an testing apparatus
 Figure 3.12 : Effect of temperature on the energy absorbed upon impact by
different types of materials.
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 FATIGUE TEST
 Fatigue – failures which occur under dynamic or
fluctuating stresses (repeated or cyclic stress).
 Examples : in connecting rods, shafts and gears.
 Occurring very suddenly and without warning.
 Usually starts/originates at a point of stress
concentration such as a sharp corner or notch.

Figure 3.13 : Schematic diagram of fatigue machine

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 Figure 3.14 : SN (Stress vs. number of cycles) curves for fatigue failure
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CREEP TEST
 Creep – deformation under static load or stress at elevated
temperature.

 Examples : in high-pressure steam lines, turbine rotors in

jet engines etc.

 Time-independent and permanent deformation of materials.

 For metals – only important when the service temperature >

0.4 Tm (Tm = absolute melting temperature).

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 Figure 3.15 :
Typical creep curve of strain versus time at
Figure 3.16 :
constant stress and constant elevated Influence of stress  and
temperature. temperature T on creep behavior.
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