Chapter IV

Part III

1
4. THEORY OF TURBO MACHINES
4.1 Velocity triangles
4.2 The specific work of the blade
4.3 The capacity
4.4 The vane congruent flow
4.5 Deviation of actual flow from vane congruent flow
4.6 Head losses and efficiencies in centrifugal machines
4.7 Effect of geometry of the impeller on its performance
4.8 Performance characteristics of centrifugal machines
4.9 Additional points about turbo compressors
4.10 Limitations of turbo machines

2
 4.7 Effect Of Geometry Of The Impeller On
Its Performance

At this stage the reader can determine the specific energy
(head), capacity and brake power of a centrifugal machine if
the geometry, speed of rotation and density of the flow
medium are known.
However not introduced as to how the given geometry and
speed are determined.
The process of determining the geometry and speed of the
impeller is known as design.
3
 To design an effective impeller for a given performance the
engineer has to know the effect of the various geometric
parameters of the impeller.
 In addition the knowledge will help the engineer to make
appropriate conclusion about each part of the machine during
selection, maintenance and installation.
 The next sections deal with the effect of the various geometric
parameters on the performance of turbo machines.

4
4.7.1 Effect of Blade Angle 2 on the Specific Work
Yblade,

 The following section discusses how the specific energy

depends on the vane angle at the exit.

Y blade,  u 2 c 2u
 u 2 (u 2  c 2 m cot  2)
 u  u 2 c 2 m cot  2
2
2

Let A  u 22 and B  u 2 c2m

Y blade ,  A  B cot  2
5
 Y blade ,  A  B cot  2

2 00 900 1800
Y blade,  u
2
2 

Yblade,

Datum Blade angle

  cot
1 u 2
2 , datum
c
2m

  
The effect of the blade 2 angle on Y blade, 6
 The impeller blades are classified into three basic types:
1. Backward [B2<90]
2. Radial [B2=90]
3. Forward based on the discharge angle [B2>90]

Backward Backward Forward

curved inclined Radial Tip Radial curved

Figure 4.35 Types of blades 7

 we also observe that for extremely forward curved blades
(2>>900) the theoretically transferable specific energy by the
blade is extremely high.
 This means that you can, theoretically, get a very small impeller
that can transfer a very large amount of energy just by giving it
high blade angle at the discharge. This seems very attractive,
because it will then enable us to design very compact fluid
machines.
 However it is not only the size (compactness) that matters but
also the efficiency of the pump
 The efficiency is highly related to the fraction of the energy that
is developed in the form of pressure energy.
 This fraction is known as degree of reaction of the impeller and
the static pressure energy is commonly known as specific static
rotor work. 8
 4.7.2 The Specific Static Rotor Work

 The specific work transferred from the impeller to the fluid in

the form of pressure energy is called specific static rotor work
Yp.
2 2
c3  c 0
Y  Yp   Z guide
2
2 2
c3uc 3u
Yp Y   (1   guide ) Energy loss in the guide
2 2


2
c 3u 
 guide 

1 
 c guide 3u 

2 Y
 = 
Y p  Y 1 
 Y blade  h    2u h 2



 
 9
 2 2
c c 2
Y  Y p  3 0  Z guide c 3u
2 Yp  Y   guide
2
2 2 2 2 2
c 3  c 0  c 3  c3 m  c3u
2 2 2  c32u 
  guide 
2
Y p  Y 1  

 Y blade h 
2  
c 3u 
Z guide
 guide  2
2  c32u 
c 3u   guide 
2 2
Y p  Y 1  
 u 2 c3u  h 
c 3u
2  
Z guide  (1   guide)
2
  guide c3u 
c
2
c
2
Y p  Y 1  
Yp Y  3u 3u
(1   guide )   h 2u 2 
2 2
10
 Degree of Reaction
 is the fraction of the useful energy transferred to the flow
medium, which is in the form of pressure energy.

R Y P
Y
c
R  1  3u
2u 2

c 2u  u 2  c2 m cot  2 
For vane congruent flow: R  1  1  
2u 2  2u 2 

  c2 m
1  c2 m cot  2 
cot 
1
R  1   , R=0 for
2 u2 
2
u 2
11
 Y For vane congruent flow
R P
Y R  1
c 2u  u 2  c 2 m cot  2 
 1  
  guide c3u  2u 2  2 u 2 
Y p  Y 1  
  h 2u 2  1  c 2 m cot  2 
R 1 
2 u2 
Yp  guide c3u
R  1
Y  h 2u 2

   c2 m
1
R=0 for cot
guide=h 2
u 2

c 3u
R  1
2u 2

12
 Using the above equation the static rotor work can be
calculated just by multiplying R by Y.
 The curves for Yp and Yblade, at different values of 2 are as
shown below

Yvel

YP
YP

  
13
 When 2=900, the reaction R=0.5, and the theoretical total
head comprises the velocity head and static head equal in
value.

 Almost all pumps and compressors are provided with

backward curved blades b/c of efficiency.

 Fans can be provided with either of the five types

 Generally the blade angle 2 affects both the efficiency and
compactness of a turbo machine

14
 4.7.3 Shape Number and Specific Speed

 shape number or an equivalent one called specific speed relates

the shape of the impeller to its performance.

 By the shape of the impeller we mainly mean the ratio D1/D2.

 The shape number is the dimensionless number that relates the

performance Q and Y of the impeller to the shape of the impeller
at a given impeller speed.

15
Derivation of A Shape number

  m2

  3 
N shape  n 1 s Q m s  Y  
   s 2 
m: 3  2  0
s :     2  0
____________________

2    0 
2
1 3
for =1  
2 4 16
 n Q
N shape  3/ 4
Y
[Q]: m3/s, [n]: rps, [H]: m

Two modifications are made on the shape number to get the

specific speed, the constant term g is left out and commonly used
unit of rotational speed, rpm, is used for n.

n Q
The expression becomes: n  3/ 4
H
q

17
 The shape number and the specific speed are related by the
formula

N shape = 333 n q

Where:
n Q nq=Specific speed
n  3/ 4 n: impeller speed of rotation [rpm]
H
q
Q: Volume flow rate [m3/s]
H=Head [ m]
18
 4.7.4 Relation between Specific speed
and Impeller Dimensions
 For vane congruent flow
Q=D1b1c1m
Assuming radial inlet flow
c1m= D1n tan 

Q   D b1 n tan  1
2 2
1
……..(1)

 c2 m 
Y   u c
h 2 2U
  h u 2

 u 2  tan  

 2 
19
  c 
Y   u 2 1  
2 2m
h 
 u 2
tan  
2 

 c2m 
Y   h  D n 1 
2 2
2
2


 D 2 n tan  2

b1 D1
c2m  c1m (Continuity eq.)
b2 D 2

20
 b1 D1
C 2m  (u1 tan  1)
b2 D2
2
D b1
c2m  1
n tan  1
D 2 b2
  
2
  tan  
D1   b1 
Y   h  2 D 22 n2 1  

1
  b2  tan  
……(2)
  D2    2


21
 Substituting eq (1) and (2) in the eq. of specific speed

n Q
nq  3/ 4
H
60n[rps] D1 b1 n tan  1
nq  3/ 4
  2  
  h 2 2 2  D1   b1  tan  1  
  D 2n 1     
  
 g   D 2   b 2  tan  2  
  

22
 The relationship between specific speed and D1/D2 is
expressed graphically

2000

1500
nq

1000

500

0
0 0.5 1

Radial D1/D2
Axial
23
 Specific speed and shape of the impeller

10 20 40 60 120 300

24
 Specific speed is highly related with efficiency

 To get a performance that results in a very small specific

speed (very high head and relatively small capacity), we need
an impeller with narrow and long impellers that result in high
energy loss due to fluid friction.

 The fig below shows the relationship between efficiency,

specific speed and volume flow rate.

25
 100
Over 2300m3/hr

90
2300m3/hr

680m3/hr
80
230m /hr
3

115 m3/hr
Eff. %
70 45 m3/hr

23 m3/hr
60

50

40

10 20 40 60 120 300

Figure: Relationship between efficiency and specific speed and flow rate.
26
 The efficiency of centrifugal fluid machine falls very rapidly
for specific speed below 20. In such low specific speeds the
efficiency will be unacceptably low.

 In such cases, either positive displacement pumps or multi

stage pumps, with the impellers mounted on the same shaft are
used.

 Multi stage centrifugal machines are commonly manufactured

with impellers mounted on the same shaft.

27
 Figure Centrifugal impellers in series

 The number of stages can be determined easily if the

minimum allowable specific speed per stage is determined.

28
 Determination of number of stages

H total  i  H i
n Q n Q 3/ 4 3/ 4
nq ,i   i  n q ,total  i
3/ 4
 H total  H total 3/ 4
 
 i 
 Therefore the number of stages can be calculated by the
following formula.
4/3
 n q, i 
i 
 n q, total 
 
Specific speed calculated from the required total head
and flow rate.
29
 Example 1
• The head and capacity of a centrifugal water pump is
running at 1450 rpm are 64m and 240m3/hr respectively.
The overall efficiency of the pump at the mentioned
working point is 75%. The density of water at the
pumping condition is 998kg/m3. If the speed is changed
to 1980 rpm, what will be the head, capacity and brake
power of the pump.

30
 Example 2
• A centrifugal pump should operate at a head and flow
rate of 140m and 115m3/hr respectively the available
motor speed is 1450 rpm determine the number of
stages if the minimum allowable specific speed is 15 and
the actual specific speed in the number of stages you
calculated.

31
 4.7.5 Double Suction Impellers

 Unbalanced axial thrust on the impeller towards the suction

pipe occurs due to the difference in the magnitude of the
suction and discharge pressure.
 In single stage, large size pumps double suction impellers are
used to balance this axial thrust.

32
 Discharge
Discharge Pressure Discharge
Pressure Pressure

Discharge
Pressure

Suction Suction Suction

Pressure Pressure Pressure

Figure Balanced and Unbalanced Axial Thrust

33
• The fig below shows double suction impeller, it is equivalent
to two impellers working in parallel;
 Adv. It reduces maintenance cost due to unbalanced axial
trust.
 Disadv. Each impeller works in parallel with a flow rate of
half of the total. This results in a reduced specific speed of
each which leads in reduced efficiency.

34
 Example 3
• A double suction centrifugal pump with an impeller
speed of 2950 rpm has flow rate of 1400m3/hr and head
of 120 m estimate the highest efficiency expected from
the pump.

35
 4.7.6 Effect of Inlet Geometry and Speed of
Pumps: Cavitations

 If the pressure at any point in the suction is less than the

vapor pressure of the liquid, the liquid will vaporize and form
cavities of vapor. This vapor is carried out with the liquid
until it reaches to a place where a higher pressure that
collapse the vapor which results in tremendous shock on the
adjacent walls. This Phenomena is called CAVITATION.
It results in
 erosion and wear on the impellers
Vibration and noise
Loss efficiency and loss capacity

36
 Avoiding Cavitations

 Cavitation can be avoided by making the suction pressure

greater than the vapor pressure.

 The quality of a centrifugal pump with respect to cavitation is

given by Net Positive Suction Head Requirement (NPSHR) of
the pump. (It is related to the head loss inside the pump and
dynamic head at the inlet of the blade channel.)

 If NPSHR is large the quality of the pump is poor with respect

to avoiding cavitations

37
 The Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) is the
static pressure head of a given system that is above the vapor
pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature.

 It is the measure of the safeness of the system with respect to

cavitation.

 Higher NPSHA means that the system is not susceptible to

cavitation.

38
  PA=atmospheric pressure
NPSHR
NPSHA  hA= PA/g
hs
h A=PA/ g h sta t  es= Geodetic head
PT/ g
 zs= Friction loss
ZS
 hs= Total suction head
eS
 PT= Vapor pressure at the
PA=Pa tm
liquid temperature T.

39
 At the inlet of the blade channel, the total suction head is the
total static head minus the friction loss, and the elevation above
the liquid surface , i.e., hs= hA – zs – es.

 The total suction head minus the vapor pressure head gives the
NPSHA.
 the main parameters that affect the NPSHR are the flow angle
0, the pre-rotation factor and the speed of rotation of the
impeller
 To avoid cavitation NPSHA >NPSHR
40
 NPSHA  P T
 h stat  NPSHR
g

NPSHA  NPSHR  h stat  PT

g

To avoid cavitation:
PT PT
h stat   h stat  0
g g

NPSHA  NPSHR
41
 NPSHR is the characteristics of the pump and is normally
given with the pump data.
 For design purpose the NPSHR can be estimated by the
following formula.
2 2
w C 0 0
NPSHR  1   2
2 2
Experimental values show that

1: 0.25 to 0.35

2: 1.1 to 1.3
42
• The optimum values of 0 that minimize NPSHR at 1= 0.3,
2 =1.2 for various pre-rotations are obtained by
differentiation and equating the result to zero.

• When there is no pre-rotation the optimum value of 0 is

17.30 which is presented in the graph below.

43
 0.3

60

30

0
2 r=1 0
Pre -ro ta tio n Pre -ro ta tio n
in o p p o site in d ire c tio n
d ire c tio n o f ro ta tio n

Fig. Optimum inlet flow angle - 0

44
 Suction Number and Suction Specific Speed

• A suction number is used to characterize pump with respect to

cavitation in design, selection and operation.

• The suction number is defined as

n Q
S 
q
NPSHR g  3/ 4

Some times the term suction specific speed is used.

n Q
Sq 
NPSHR  3 / 4
45
 Suction number is influenced by the pre rotation.

 The higher the value of the suction number , Sq, the better the
quality of the pump with respect to avoiding cavitations.

 slight pre-rotation (r=0.8) in the direction of impeller rotation

avoids cavitation best.(see the fig below)

46
 0.6 0a =( )
0a o p t

1=0.3

0.4 2=1.2

Sq

0.2

0
2 1.5 1 0.8 0.5 0
r

the best flow angle 0 with respect to avoiding cavitation is

around 170.
For design purpose 0 =17.20 is commonly
used for a case of no-pre-rotation.
47
Table 4.3 Range of suction number and quality with regard to cavitations

Comment
Sq

0.3 to 0.4 Low quality in regard to avoiding

cavitation
0.4 to 0.45 Normal

>0.45 High quality in regard to avoiding

cavitation

48
 Limit on the Speed

 Since increase in speed of rotation increases the NPSHR,

avoiding cavitation limits the speed of rotation that can be
used at safe condition regarding cavitation.

• It is know that n Q
Sq 
NPSHR g  3/ 4

4/3
1 n Q 
NPSHR   
g  S q 

49
To avoid
cavitations:
4/3
1 n Q 
NPSHA  NPSHR   
g  S q 
4/3
1 n Q 
NPSHA   
g  S q 

Sq NPSHA g  3/ 4

n
Q

50
Determination of NPSHA for some
typical cases

PA P a tm

e s=+ve

e s=-ve
e s=-ve P a tm

51
 NPSHA  P A  es  h fs  PT
g g

 Note that the geodetic height es, is measured from the

liquid surface to the entrance of the suction blade.

 It is positive if we measure up from the liquid surface and

negative if we measure below the liquid surface.

52
 Measures Outside the Pump for
Avoiding Cavitations
 As it is already indicated in the previous section the quality of a
pump with respect to cavitation is taken care of during design
and manufacturing of the pump.
 Carefully designed and manufactured pumps will have low
NPSHR.

 On the other hand cavitations can also be avoided by measures

outside the pump, these methods are based on increasing the
NPSHA so that the condition for no cavitation,

i.e., NPSHA > NPSHR is satisfied.

53
a. Lower elevation (small es)
 lowering the value of the suction elevation e s, increases
NPSHA.
 When the pump is below the surface of the liquid to be pumped,
es becomes negative hence it increases the NPSHA.
 Therefore it is always better, with respect to avoiding
cavitation, to install the pump below the surface of the liquid.
This is usually simple when we transfer liquid from one tank to
another.
 In some cases, like pumping from a well if the NPSHR is high,
we have to use specially designed submersible pumps so that
the pump will be installed inside the liquid without damaging
the motor.

54
55
b. Minimum Temeprature
 When the pump is to be used in a system at various
temperatures it is advisable to install the pump so that it
suction side is at the lowest temperature side. This will lead
PT
to a lower vapor pressure so that will be smaller,
g
resulting in higher NPSHA.

56
c. Increase PA
 In some cases when the risk of cavitations is high, we can
increase the NPSHA by increasing PA.

 This can be done by bypassing some of the liquid from the

discharge line to the suction line. By so doing we increase
the static pressure of the suction side.

57
58
d. Minimum suction Head loss (small hfs)
 The suction piping should be short.

This means we have to install the pump as close to the source as possible so
that the suction piping gets smaller.
 The suction piping should be as straight as possible:-

To minimize the minor losses ( losses in pipe fittings) we have to make the
suction piping as straight as possible.
 We have to use the discharge side valve for regulation. Valves for
regulation the flow rate, or control valves in general should not be put at
the suction side.

59
60
 Example
• A centrifugal pump is used to pump a liquid chemical
with a density of 860kg/m3. The vapor pressure of the
liquid at the pumping temperature is 40kPa. The friction
head loss in the suction pipe is 2.5m and the pressure PA
at the surface of the liquid is 1.013 bar. If the NPSH
requirement of the pump is 3m determine the elevation
es, above or below the liquid level that the pump has to
be installed to avoid cavitations.

61
 Example
• The sketch below shows the suction side of a pumping
system using centrifugal pump for pumping water at
500C from a hot spring well at a rate of 130 m3/hr. The
NPSH requirement of the pump is 5m determine, the
possibility of cavitation and if there is a possibility
suggests a method to avoid cavitation. The pipe is 5”-40,
commercial steel pipe and has a total length of 25m.

62
 Gate Valve D1a=120mm
900 regular elbow

3m
PA=1 atm

Foot Valve/Swing check

V

63