KIG2008 Manufacturing

Technology

Lecture note 3
Cutting tools, Tool
Geometry,Tool wear, Tool life
 Cutting Tools
• One of most important components in
machining process
• Performance will determine efficiency of
operation
• Two basic types (excluding abrasives)
• Single point and multiple point
• Must have rake and clearance angles
ground or formed on them

2
 Cutting-Tool Materials

• Toolbits generally made of seven materials

• High-speed steel
• Cast alloys (such as stellite)
• Cemented carbides
• Ceramics
• Cermets
• Cubic Boron Nitride
• Polycrystalline Diamond

4
 Cutting Tool Properties
• Hardness
• Cutting tool material must be 1 1/2 times harder than
the material it is being used to machine.

• Capable of maintaining a red hardness during

machining operation
• Red hardness: ability of cutting tool to maintain sharp
cutting edge
• Also referred to as hot hardness or hot strength

5
 Cutting Tool Properties
• Wear Resistance
• Able to maintain sharpened edge throughout the
cutting operation
• Same as abrasive resistance

• Shock Resistance
• Able to take the cutting loads and forces

6
 Cutting Tool Properties
• Shape and Configuration
• Must be available for use in different sizes and
shapes.

7
 High-Speed Steel
High-speed steel is a subset of tool steels, commonly used as cutting tool
material. It is often used in power-saw blades and drill bits. It is superior to the
older high-carbon steel tools that it can withstand higher temperatures without
losing its temper.

• May contain combinations of tungsten, chromium,

vanadium, molybdenum, cobalt
• Can take heavy cuts, withstand shock and maintain
sharp cutting edge under red hardness
• Generally two types (general purpose)
• Molybdenum-base (Group M)
• Tungsten-base (Group T)
• Cobalt added if more red hardness desired 8
 Cast Alloy (such as stellite)
Stellite is a range of cobalt-chromium alloys designed for wear resistance. The
alloys may also contain tungsten or molybdenum and a small, but important,
amount of carbon.
• Usually contain 25% to 35% chromium, 4% to 25%
tungsten and 1% to 3% carbon
• Remainder cobalt
• Qualities
• High hardness
• High resistance to wear
• Excellent red-hardness
• Operate 2 ½ times speed of high-speed steel
• Weaker and more brittle than high-speed steel
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 Carbide Cutting Tools
• First used in Germany during WW II as substitute for
diamonds
• Various types of cemented (sintered) carbides
developed to suit different materials and machining
operations
• Good wear resistance
• Operate at speeds ranging 150 to 1200 sf/min
• Can machine metals at speeds that cause cutting
edge to become red hot without losing hardness

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 Cemented-Carbide
• Capable of cutting speeds 3 to 4 times
high-speed steel tool bits
• Low toughness but high hardness and excellent
red-hardness
• Consist of tungsten carbide sintered in cobalt
matrix
• Straight tungsten used to machine cast iron and
nonferrous materials (crater easily)
• Different grades for different work

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Manufacture of Cemented
Carbides
• Products of powder metallurgy process
• Tantalum, titanium, niobium
• Operations
• Blending
• Compaction
• Presintering
• Sintering

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Blending
• Five types of powders
• Tungsten carbide, titanium carbide, cobalt,
tantalum carbide, niobium carbide
• One or combination blended in different
proportions depending on grade desired
• Powder mixed in alcohol (24 to 190 h)
• Alcohol drained off
• Paraffin added to simplify pressing operation

13
Compaction
• Must be molded to shape and size
• Five different methods to
compact powder
• Extrusion process
• Hot press
• Isostatic press
• Ingot press
• Pill press
• Green (pressed) compacts soft, must
be pre-sintered to dissolve paraffin

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14
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Presintering

• Green compacts heated to about ~816º C in furnace

under protective atmosphere of hydrogen
• Carbide blanks have consistency of dense chalk
• May be machined to required shape
• 40% oversize to allow for shrinkage that occurs during
final sintering

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 Sintering
• Last step in process
• Converts pre-sintered machine blanks into
cemented carbide
• Carried out in either hydrogen atmosphere or
vacuum
• Temperatures between ~1400º and 1500º C
• Binder (cobalt) unites and cements carbide
powders into dense structure of extremely hard
carbide crystals

16
Cemented-Carbide Applications
• Used extensively in manufacture of metal-cutting
tools
• Extreme hardness and good wear-resistance
• First used in machining operations as lathe cutting
tools
• Majority are single-point cutting tools used on lathes
and milling machines

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Types of Carbide Lathe
Cutting Tools
• Brazed-tip type
• Cemented-carbide tips brazed to
steel shanks
• Wide variety of styles and sizes
• Indexable insert type
• Throwaway inserts
• Wide variety of shapes: triangular,
square, diamond, and round
• Triangular: has three cutting edges
• Inserts held mechanically in special
holder
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Reasons Indexable Inserts More
Popular than Brazed-Tip Tools
1. Less time required to change cutting
edge
2. Amount of machine downtime
reduced considerable thus
production increased
3. Time normally spent in regrinding
eliminated
4. Faster speeds and feeds can be
used
5. Cost of diamond wheels eliminated
6. Indexable inserts cheaper than
brazed-tip

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Cemented-Carbide Insert
Identification
• American Standards Association has
developed system by which indexable inserts
can be identified quickly and accurately
• Adopted by manufacturers

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Grades of Cemented Carbides
• Two main groups of carbides
• Straight tungsten carbide
• Contains only tungsten carbide and
cobalt
• Strongest and most wear-resistant
• Used for machining cast iron and
nonmetals
• Crater-resistant
• Contain titanium carbide and
tantalum carbide in addition to
tungsten carbide and cobalt
• Used for machining most steels 22
Qualities of Tungsten
Carbide Tools
Determined by size of tungsten carbide particles and
percentage of cobalt
1. Finer the grain particles, lower the tool toughness
2. Finer the grain particles, higher tool hardness
3. Higher the hardness, greater wear resistance
4. Lower cobalt content, lower tool toughness
5. Lower cobalt content, higher hardness

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 Additive Characteristics
• Titanium carbide
• Addition provides resistance to tool cratering
• Content increased
• Toughness of tool decreased
• Abrasive wear resistance at cutting edge lowered
• Tantalum carbide
• Addition provides resistance to tool cratering
• Without affecting abrasive wear resistance
• Addition increases tool's resistance to deformation

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General Rules for Selection of Proper
Cemented-Carbide Grade
1. Use grade with lowest cobalt content and finest grain size
2. Use straight tungsten carbide grades to combat abrasive
wear
3. To combat cratering, seizing, welding, and galling, use
titanium carbide grades
4. For crater and abrasive wear resistance, use tantalum
carbide grades
5. Use tantalum carbide grades for heavy cuts in steel, when
heat and pressure might deform cutting edge

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 Coated Carbide Inserts
• Give longer tool life, greater productivity and
freer-flowing chips
• Coating acts as permanent lubricant
• Permits higher speed, reduced heat and stress
• Two or three materials in coating give tool special
qualities
• Innermost layer of titanium carbide
• Thick layer of aluminum oxide
• Third, very thin layer titanium nitride

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 Coatings
• Titanium carbide
• High wear and abrasion resistance
(moderate speed)
• Used for roughing and finishing
• Aluminum oxide
• Provides chemical stability
• Maintains hardness at high temperatures
• Titanium nitride
• Extremely hard, good crater resistance
• Excellent lubricating properties

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Cutting Tool Materials (Summary)

35
Tool
Geometry
Terms adopted
by ASME

36
 Cutting-Tool Terms
• Front, End, Relief
(Clearance)
• Allows end of cutting tool to
enter work
• Side Relief (Side)
• Permits side of tool to
advance into work

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Cutting-Tool Terms
• Side Cutting Edge Angle
• Angle cutting edge meets work
• Positive
• Negative - protects point at start and end of cut
• Nose Radius
• Strengthens finishing point of tool
• Improves surface finish on work
• Should be twice amount of feed per revolution
• Too large – chatter; too small – weakens point

39
 Side Rake
• Large as possible to allow
chips to escape
• Amount determined
• Type and grade of cutting tool
• Type of material being cut
• Feed per revolution
• Angle of keenness
• Formed by side rake and side
clearance

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40
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 Back Rake
• Angle formed between top face of tool and top
of tool shank
• Positive
• Top face slopes downward
away from point
• Negative
• Top face slopes upward
away from point
• Neutral

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41
Permission required for reproduction or display.
Cemented-Carbide Cutting-Tool
Angles and Clearances
• Vary greatly
• Depend on three factors
• Hardness of cutting tool
• Workpiece material
• Type of cutting operation
• May have to be altered slightly to suit various
conditions encountered

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Cutting Speeds and Feeds
• Important factors that influence speeds,
feeds, and depth of cut
• Type and hardness of work material
• Grade and shape of cutting tool
• Rigidity of cutting tool
• Rigidity of work and machine
• Power rating of machine

43
Machining with Carbide Tools
• To obtain maximum efficiency
• Precautions in machine setup
• Rigid and free from vibrations
• Equipped with heat-treated gears
• Sufficient power to maintain constant cutting speed
• Cutting operation
• Cutting tool held as rigidly as possible to avoid chatter

44
Suggestions for Using
Cemented-Carbide Cutting Tools
• Work Setup
• Mount work in chuck or holding device to prevent
slipping and chattering
• Revolving center used in tailstock for turning work
between centers
• Tailstock spindle extended minimum distance and
locked securely
• Tailstock should be clamped firmly to lathe bed

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 Suggestions for Using
Cemented-Carbide Cutting Tools
• Tool Selection
• Use cutting tool with proper rake and clearances
• Hone cutting edge
• Use side cutting edge angle
large enough tool can be
eased into work
• Use largest nose radius
operating conditions permit
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 Tool Setup
1. Hold carbide tool in turret-type holder
• Amount of tool overhang enough for chip
clearance
2. Cutting tool set exactly on center
3. Designed to operate while bottom of tool
shank is in horizontal position
4. If rocker-type toolpost: remove rocker,
invert rocker base, shim tool to correct
height, Use special carbide toolholder
(having no rake)
5. Always keep it from touching work and
machine parts to avoid damaging tool
point
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 Machine Setup
• Always make sure machine has adequate power rating
for machining operation and no slippage in clutch and
belts
• Set correct speed for material cut and operation
performed
• Too high cause rapid tool failure
• Too low result in inefficient cutting action
• Set machine feed for good metal-removal rate and good
surface finish
• Too light causes rubbing
• Too coarse slows down machine creates heat

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Cutting Operation
1. Never bring tool point against work that is
stationary
2. Always use heaviest depth of cut possible for
machine and size of cutting tool
3. Never stop machine while feed engaged
• Will break cutting edge
• Stop feed and allow tool to clear before stopping
machine

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4. Never continue to use dull cutting tool
5. Dull cutting tool recognized by
• Work produced oversize with glazed finish
• Rough and ragged finish
• Change in shape or color of chips
6. Apply cutting fluid only if
• Can be applied under pressure
• Can be directed at point of cutting and kept there
at all times

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 Tool Selection and
Application Guide
• Other factors affecting optimum life
• Horsepower available on machine tool
• Rigidity of machine tool and toolholders
• Shape of workpiece and setup
• Speed and feed rates used for machining operation

51
 Grinding Wheels
1. 80-grit silicon carbide
wheel used for rough
grinding carbides
2. 100-grit silicon carbide
wheel used for finish
grinding carbides
3. Diamond grinding wheels
(100-grit) excellent for
finish grinding; high
finishes use 220-grit
diamond wheel 53
Type of Grinder
• Heavy-duty grinder used for grinding carbides
• Cutting pressures required to remove carbide are
5 to 10 times as great as high-speed steel tools
• Should be equipped with adjustable table and
protractor so necessary tool angles and
clearances may be ground accurately

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 Tool Grinding
1. Regrind cutting tool to angles and clearances
recommend by manufacturer
2. Use silicon carbide wheels for rough grinding
• Use diamond wheels when high surface finishes required
3. Move carbide tool back and forth over grinding wheel
face to keep amount of head generated to minimum
4. Never quench carbide tools that become hot during
grinding – allow them to cool gradually

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 Honing
• Remove fine, ragged edge left by grinding wheel
• Fine, nicked edge fragile
• Suggestions for successful honing
• 320-grit silicon carbide or diamond hone
• 45º chamfer .002 to .004 in. wide honed
on cutting edge when cutting steel
• No chamfer if used for aluminum,
magnesium and plastics

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Metal-Cutting

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Turning
• High proportion of work
machined in shop turned on
lathe
• Workpiece held securely in
chuck or between lathe
centers
• Turning tool set to given depth
of cut, fed parallel to axis of
work (reduces diameter of
work)
• Chip forms and slides along
cutting tool's upper surface
created by side rake
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Turning

Assume cutting machine steel: If rake and relief clearance

angles correct and proper speed and feed used, a
continuous chip should be formed.
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Planing or Shaping
• Workpiece moved back and forth under cutting tool
• Fed sideways a set amount at end of each table reversal
• Should have
proper rake
and clearance
angles on cutting
tool

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Plain Milling
• Multi-tooth tool having several equally spaced cutting edges
around periphery
• Each tooth considered single-point cutting tool (must have
proper rake and clearance angles)
• Workpiece held in vise or fastened to table
• Fed into horizontal revolving cutter
• Each tooth makes successive cuts
• Produces smooth, flat, or profiled surface depending on shape of
cutter

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 Plain Milling

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Inserted Blade Face Mill
• Consists of body that holds several equally spaced
inserts
• Required rake angle
• Lower edge of each insert has relief or clearance angle
ground on it
• Cutting action occurs at lower corner of insert
• Corners chamfered to give strength

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 End Milling
• Multi-fluted cutters held vertically in vertical milling
machine spindle or attachment
• Used primarily for cutting slots or grooves
• Workpiece held in vise and fed into revolving cutter
• End milling
• Cutting done by periphery of teeth

65
 Nomenclature of an End Mill

66
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 Nomenclature of an End Mill

67
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 Drilling
• Multi-edge cutting tool that cuts on the
point
• Drill's cutting edges (lips) provided
with lip clearance to permit point to
penetrate workpiece as drill revolves
• Rake angle provided by helical-
shaped flutes
• Slope away from cutting edge
• Angle of keenness
• Angle between rake angle and clearance
angle
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 Characteristics of a Chip formation
Drill Point of a drill

Cutting-point angles for

standard drill
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 TOOL WEAR
The change of shape of the tool from its original
shape, during cutting, resulting from the gradual
loss of tool material
Cutting tools are subjected to an extremely
severe rubbing process.

They are in metal-to metal contact, between

the chip and work piece, under conditions of
very high stress at high temperature.

The situation is further aggravated

(worsened) due to the existence of extreme
stress and temperature gradients near
the surface of the tool.
During cutting, cutting tools remove the
material from the component to achieve the
required shape, dimension and surface
roughness (finish).

However, wears are occurring during the

cutting action, and it will result in the failure
of the cutting tool.

When the tool wear reach certain extent, the

tool or edge change has to be replaced to
guarantee the ordinary cutting
action.
CAUSES OF TOOL WEAR
• Wear is caused by:
– Temperature
– Sliding
– Force
• Tool wear is one of the important factors
of machining
• Cutting speed
• Tool geometry, cutting fluid
• Tool material, workpiece material
Consequences of tool wear
1. Decrease the dimension accuracy;
2. Increase the surface roughness;
3. Increase the cutting force;
4. Increase the temperature;
5. Likely cause vibration;
6. Lower the production efficiency,
component quality;
7. Increase the cost.
Type of tool wear

Crater wear : Occurs on top rake face

Flank wear : Occurs on flank (side of
tool)
 Basic types of wear that affect a cutting tool
Abrasive wear

The loss of surface material is caused by an interaction with a

separate particle "trapped" between the two sliding surfaces.
 Abrasive wear
•Caused by small particles of the workpieces
rubbing against the tool surface
•Gradual wear at the tool point is seen on the
clearance face of the tool in the form of wear
land
•Wear is also found on the cutting face of the
tool or cratering
 Adhesion wear
• Because of plastic deformation and friction, high
temperatures involved in cutting process can cause a
welding action on the surfaces of the tool and
workpiece
• The consequent stresses of the cutting process lead to
fracture of the weld causing degeneration of cutting
tool
 Diffusion wear

• Is caused by a displacement of atoms in

the metallic crystal of the cutting
element from one lattice point to
another
• This results in a gradual deformation of
the tool surface
Diffusion wear characterizes the material loss
due to diffusion of atoms of the tool material
into the workpiece moving over it.

Requirements for diffusion wear are

metallurgical bonding of the two surfaces so
that atoms can move freely across the
interface, a temperature high enough to make
rapid diffusion possible, and some solubility of
the tool material phases in the work material
Chemical and electrolytic
wear
• A chemical reaction between tool and
workpiece in the presence of cutting
fluid is the cause of chemical wear
• Electrolytic wear is the result of
possible galvanic corrosion between
tool and workpiece
 Galvanic Corrosion
• Galvanic corrosion tends to occur when
dissimilar conducting materials are
connected electrically and exposed to an
electrolyte. The following fundamental
requirements therefore have to be met for
galvanic corrosion:
1. Dissimilar metals (or other conductors, such
as graphite).
2. Electrical contact between the dissimilar
conducting materials
(can be direct contact or a secondary
connection such as a common grounding
path).
3. Electrolyte (the corrosive medium
/conductive solution) in contact with the
dissimilar conducting materials.
 Oxidation wear
• At high temperatures, oxidation of the
carbide in the cutting tool decreases its
strength and cause wear of the edge
• The tip of the tool becomes soft to
function and failure is quick
 Tool Life
● Tool life is the measure of the length of time a
tool will cut satisfactorily
● The life of a tool is important in metal cutting as
considerable amount of time is lost whenever a tool is
replaced or reset
● Cutting tools become dull as usage continues and
their effectiveness drops
● At some point it is necessary to replace, index, or re-
sharpen the reset the tool
• Tool life is the time a tool can be reliably
be used for cutting before it must be
discarded/repaired.

• Some tools, such as lathe bits are

regularly reground after use.

• A tool life equation was developed by

Taylor, and is outlined later,
• Tool life controlled largely with temperature (i.e. HEAT)
• Sources of heat:
– Friction
• Rake Face
• Flank Face
– Deformation
• Heat goes into:
– Chip
– Tool
– Work piece
• Minimize heat by:
– Lubrication
– Tool coatings
– Sharp tool
– Feeds and speeds
 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

• In plastic deformation in the cutting area,

most of the energy spent in converted into
heat. (Almost 99% of the energy)
• Temperature rise can be a problem for
machining steel and other tough metals.
Can reduce strength of the tool and create
wear.
• Dimensional change in the part can be a
problem.
• Can cause thermal cracks on the work
piece.
• Heat generation taken place in primary
shear zone, tool chip interface and tool tip
rubbing against the machined surface.
• At high speed, temperature rises.
• Temp proportional to friction on the chip
interface.
• Flank wear can also cause heat. Sharp
tools tend to reduce heat.
 CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

Important properties
– Toughness – avoid fracture
– Hot hardness – resist abrasion
– Wear resistance – solubility

Cutting tool materials

– Plain carbon and low alloy steels
– High-speed steels
– Cemented carbides, cermets and coated carbides
– Ceramics
– Synthetic diamond and Cubic Boron Nitrides (CBN)
Taylor Tool Life Equation
• Predicts tool failure based on flank failure of the tool

• n=0.125 HSS
• n=0.25 Carbide
• n=0.5 Coated Carbide/Ceramic
• NOTE: n will change for a different tool/workpiece
combination
• V = Cutting Velocity
• T = Time to failure
Tool life exponent
An important relationship
to be considered is the
relationship between
cutting speed and tool life
 Example
Given:
Coated Carbide Tool
C = 400

Find: Percentage
increase in tool life by
reducing speed by:
a) 20%
b) 50%
 Example
Given:
Coated Carbide Tool
C = 400

Find: Percentage
increase in tool life by
reducing speed by:
a) 20%
b) 50%
Although the previous equation is fairly
accurate, we can use a more complete form of
Taylor's tool life equation to include a wider
range of cuts.
End