Chapter 3 - Photovoltaic (PV) and Wind Principle

Alternative Energy
BEE4163
Chapter 3
Photovoltaic(PV) and Wind
Principle
AGENDA
INTRODUCTION
CELLS, MODULES & ARRAY
PV PERFORMANCE
PV SYSTEM
OBJECTIVE
To recall the principles of photovoltaics
To identify the components of a

photovoltaic system
PV CELLS & COMPONENTS
Anatomy of a Solar Cell
The solar cell is the smallest unit of the PV system
There are two types of manufactured PV’s:
• Silicon cell or
• Amorphous silicon
PV cell has a thin layer of silicon 1/100th of an inch
Silicon is layered with other materials to create the

photoelectric reaction
Anatomy of a Solar Cell
Boron is used for the positive layer
Phosphorus is used for the negative layer
Photons generated from the sun energize and

knock loose the extra phosphorus electron
which crosses the P/N junction to fill the hole
on the boron atom
The energy released in the process

produces .5 volt of direct current (DC)
The Photovoltaic Effect
Phosphorus -
Boron +
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
The purest silicon structure comes from the

growth of a single crystal, monocrystalline,
cut in to thin wafers
Multiple crystals cast together and sliced into

thin wafers form polycrystalline structures
A chemical process that deposits silicon on a

substrate material like glass or stainless steel as a
thin film is referred to as amorphous
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
To improve PV efficiency and reduce cost, the

industry is using materials such as cadmium
telluride and gallium arsenide
Toxic and hazardous chemicals are used

in the PV manufacturing process
When a module is exposed to fire or an

explosion, trace chemicals can be released
into the atmosphere
Monocrystalline
Modules have output capacities of 14 to 15%
Monocrystalline achieves the highest efficiency in

electric energy production
Its production cost is higher than other silicon types

Monocrystalline Silicon Modules
• Most efficient
commercially available
module (11% - 14%)
• Most expensive to
produce
• Circular (square-round)
cell creates wasted
space on module
Polycrystalline
Pure molten silicon is cast into molds, then

sliced into wafers, doped and assembled
Polycrystalline is lower in
conversion efficiency
compared to Monocrystalline,
averaging about 12 to 14%
output capacity
Installation of polycrystalline
modules on a rack system.
Polycrystalline Silicon Modules
• Less expensive to make

than single crystalline
modules
• Cells slightly less
efficient than a single
crystalline (10% - 12%)
• Square shape cells fit
into module efficiently
using the entire space
Amorphous
Made by vaporizing silicon and depositing it

on a glass, steel or flexible surface
Some are flexible and are able to be rolled

and used for remote electricity generation
The flexibility of amorphous technology allows

it to be used in a wider range of applications
Amorphous
Production costs less than other

production techniques, but the output
capacity, is reduced to 5 to 7%
A square foot of amorphous silicon

averages about 5 watts, monocrystalline
or polycrystalline average about 10 watts
per square foot
Amorphous Thin Film
• Most inexpensive
technology to produce
• Metal grid replaced with
transparent oxides
• Efficiency = 6 – 8 %
• Can be deposited on
flexible substrates
• Less susceptible to
shading problems
• Better performance in low
light conditions that with
crystalline modules
Efficiency of solar cell
Efficiency of Production
Material Efficiency in Lab (%)
Cell (%)
Monocrystalline Silicon About 24 14-17
Polycrystalline Silicon About 18 13-15
Amorphous Silicon About 13 5-7

Conversion Efficiency of
Module
Single crystal 10 - 17%

Crystalline
Silicon Poly crystalline 10 - 13%
Semiconductor
Non-crystalline Amorphous 7 - 10%
Solar Compound
Cell Semiconductor
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) 18 - 30%
Dye-sensitized Type 7 - 8%
Organic
Semiconductor Organic Thin Layer Type 2 - 3%
Electric Energy Output

Conversion Efficiency = x 100%
Energy of Insolation on cell
PV module
• I-V characteristic
• Power characteristic
• Temperature characteristic
• Module efficiency
I-V characteristic
Power characteristic
Temperature characteristic
Factors of module performance
• Modules are rated in DC Watts at STC (all manufacturers)

• Increasing Module Temperature Decreases Power (Temperature
Factor)
• Particulate build up (Soiling)
• System wiring and module output difference decrease (System
Wiring/Module Output Differences Factor)
• Inverter conversion losses
• Solar Module Tilt Angle (how much sun is shining on the module?)
• Solar Module Compass Direction (how much sun is shining on the
module based on the direction the system is facing)
• Sun Hours (how much sun is shining on the module based on the
amount of sunlight for the particular location)
PV array connection
Parallel Connection
Series Connection
Shading on Modules
• Depends on orientation of internal module
circuitry relative to the orientation of the
shading.
• SHADING can half
or even completely
eliminate the output
of a solar array!
Selecting the Correct Module
 Practical Criteria
– Size
– Voltage
– Availability
– Warranty
– Mounting Characteristics
– Cost (per watt)
Current-Voltage (I-V) Curve
Voltage Terminology
 Nominal Voltage
– Ex. A PV panel that is sized to charge a 12 V battery, but
reads higher than 12 V)
 Maximum Power Voltage (Vmax / Vmp)
– Ex. A PV panel with a 12 V nominal voltage will read 17V-
18V under MPPT conditions)
 Open Circuit Voltage (Voc )
– This is seen in the early morning, late evening, and while
testing the module)
 Standard Test Conditions (STC)
– 25 º C (77 º) cell temperature and 1000 W/m2 insolation
Effects of Temperature
 As the PV cell
temperature
increases above 25º
C, the module Vmp
decreases by
approximately 0.5%
per degree C
Effects of Shading/Low Insolation
 As insolation
decreases
amperage
decreases while
voltage remains
roughly constant
Other Issues
 Surface temperature can be measured using

laser thermometers
 Insolation can be measured with a digital
pyranometer
 Attaching a battery bank to a solar array will
decrease power production capacity
Tools
Surface
Insolation Temperature
Pyranometer Laser Thermometer

Maximum power and fill factor
• The power delivered to the load is Pout = I’V’ the area
bound by I- and V-axes and the dashed lines.
• Maximum power delivered  by changing R  max area
when I’ = Im and V’ = Vm.
I mVm
• The fill factor FF, FF  FF range is 70 – 80%
I scVoc
I (mA)
FF is a measure of the closeness of the
solar cell I-VVcurve
Voc to the rectangular shape
Light 0 V
I 0.2 0.4 0.6
I-V for a solar cell under an

V illumination of 600 Wm-2.
–10 Slope = – 1/R
Operating Point
R I
I Isc= –Iph The Load Line for R = 30 ž
P (I-V for the load)
–20
(a) (b)
(a) When a solar cell drives a load R, R has the same voltage as the solar cell
but the current through it is in the opposite direction to the convention that
current flows from high to low potential. (b) The current I and voltage V in
the circuit of (a) can be found from a load line construction. Point P is the
operating point (I, V). The load line is for R = 30 ž .
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
6.4 Open circuit voltage A solar cell under an illumination of 100 W m-2 has a short circuit current
Isc of 50 mA and an open circuit output voltage Voc, of 0.55V. What are the short circuit current and
open circuit voltages when the light intensity is halved?
Solution
The short circuit current is the photocurrent so that at
I2  
 50 W m 2 
   50 mA
Isc2  Isc1 2 = 25 mA
I1  
100 W m 
Assuming n1, the new open circuit voltage is
nk BT  I 
Voc2  Voc1  ln  2  0.55 10.0259ln0.5 = 0.508 V
e I1 
Assuming n2, the new open circuit voltage is
= 0.467 V
The Photovoltaic System Includes
Modules/Array (Tiles or Shingles)
Optional Batteries
Battery Controller
Inverter
Mounting Systems
Photovoltaic Modules
PV cells connected in series and parallel –

the voltage and amperage is accumulated to
achieve the desired electrical output
Photovoltaic cells connected

together form a PV module
Weather-proof electrical connections

connect modules together
In rare occasions junction boxes can overheat

and can lead to roof damage and potential fire
Photovoltaic Modules
Modules have a variety of sizes and rated

output, with the standard size module at 24-
volts, consisting of 72 solar cells
An average size crystalline module weighs

between 30 and 35 pounds
Photovoltaic panels have no moving parts and

require little maintenance
Photovoltaic Array
Two or more modules connected

together form a photovoltaic array
Residential system outputs of

600 volts are not uncommon
The average household in California uses

about 6,500 kilowatt-hours per year
Photovoltaic Array
The modules wired together in series to accumulate
voltage, and the strings are wired together in parallel to
Increase amperage, collectively they form the array
Array in Series and Parallel

Photovoltaic Array
A PV system in the 3 to 4 kilowatt range would

meet most homeowner’s electricity needs
A 30 module array would operate at over

4,000 watts and weigh approximately 900
to 1,050 pounds
This weight spread equally over a 420 square

foot area of the roof would result in a roof
weight load of 2.5 pounds per square foot
Photovoltaic Tiles and Shingles
PV tiles or shingles can be integrated

into the home’s roof covering
It takes more time, wiring individual

tiles or shingles together
PV tile or shingle roofing system

is less obtrusive but costs more
In High Fire Hazard Severity Zones, roofing

systems must meet Class A of Title 24 CCR
Photovoltaic Tiles and Shingles
Some
manufacturers of
PV roofing tiles
have tested their
products and meet
the standard for
Class A roofing
Manufacturers of PV shingles have

achieved a Class A rating by using
a fire resistant underlayment
beneath the PV shingles
Batteries
Lead acid batteries are used

to store PV-generated electricity
Batteries are used in off-grid PV systems,

although battery back-up can be used in
grid-connected applications
Without batteries, a grid-tied PV system

cannot provide PV electricity when the utility
grid is not energized
Batteries
Pinnacles National Monument in California installed a 9.6-

kilowatt photovoltaic system. It eliminates the fuel bill for a
diesel generator that produced 143 tons of carbon.
Batteries
A battery is an electrochemical cell
The electrical potential between the

positive and negative electrodes is about 2
volts direct current (DC)
The battery can off-gas oxygen from the

positive electrode and hydrogen from the
negative electrode
Escaping gases are highly flammable, sparks

and open flames are not allowed near the batteries
Batteries
Like the PV modules,

batteries are wired in
series and parallel to
provide the voltage and
amperage necessary for
the operation of the
electrical system
Battery Charge Controllers
To keep battery charge levels in check, a

charge controller is used in the PV system
The battery charge controller prevents over

charging reducing the danger of off-gassing
Many controllers also protect the battery from

over-discharges as well
Battery Charge Controllers
Battery charge controllers are found in off-grid systems

and grid-tied systems that have a battery back-up.
PV Inverters
The PV array, batteries and charge controllers

all function on direct current (dc)
Most household appliances run on alternating

current (ac)
The inverter changes the direct current to

alternating current at 60 hz
PV Inverter
This sine wave inverter is

used on a grid-tied system.
A look inside an inverter during the installation process.

PV Inverters
There are three types of inverters; square

wave, modified square wave and sine wave
Sine wave inverters produce a high quality

waveform used to operate sensitive electrical
equipment
Sine wave inverters are required for grid-tied

PV systems
Grid-tied inverters are designed to shut down

when there is no grid power
Mounting Systems
PV modules can be
mounted directly on the
roof, in many cases
specialized roof racks lift
the array from the roof
deck allowing air to
circulate under the
modules.
Many PV
systems are
designed to
withstand 80 mile
per hour winds.
Mounting Systems
PV systems can also be

mounted on the ground using
customized racks, or they can
be mounted on poles.
Other Solar Technologies
Two solar hot water

panels are on the
left of this roof and
44 modules of this 7
kw PV array on the
right of this 3,000
sq. ft. home. The
system is backed-up
with a generator.
Solar thermal panels (solar water heating collectors) are

used to heat water for the swimming pool or for domestic
hot water
The long rectangular panel at the bottom of
this array is a solar water heating panel.
Other Solar Technologies
Skylights are a function of passive solar

design, allowing natural light to enter the
interior of the building
A skylight with integrated

photovoltaic will have a
distinctive amorphous
rectangular pattern in the
glass
Photovoltaic
Identification
PV panels are
Distinctive: making
them relatively
easy to recognize
when you know what
to look for!
SUMMARY
The greatest danger for emergency responders

is the lack of PV knowledge needed to safely
operate around this emerging technology
This section provided you with an

introduction to the photovoltaic system
Identification of the PV array and all the related

components is critical in an emergency response
PV Wiring
Series Connections
 Loads/sources wired in series
– VOLTAGES ARE ADDITIVE

– CURRENT IS EQUAL
Parallel Connections
 Loads/sources wired in parallel:
– VOLTAGE REMAINS CONSTANT

– CURRENTS ARE ADDITIVE
Wiring Introduction
 Should wire in Parallel or

Series?
Wire Components
 Conductor material = copper (most common)

 Insulation material = thermoplastic (most common)
 Wire exposed to sunlight must be classed as

sunlight resistant
Color Coding of Wires
 Electrical wire insulation is color coded to designate its
function and use
Alternating Current (AC) Wiring Direct Current (DC) Wiring
Color Application Color Application
Black Ungrounded Hot Red (not NEC req.) Positive
White Grounded White Negative or
Conductor Grounded
Conductor
Green or Bare Equipment Green or Bare Equipment
Ground Ground
Red or any Ungrounded Hot
other color
Cables and Conduit
 Cable: two or more insulated conductors having an

overall covering
 Conduit: metal or plastic pipe that contains wires

Wire Size
 Wire size selection based on two criteria:

– Ampacity
– Voltage drop
 Ampacity - Current carrying ability of a wire
 Voltage drop: the loss of voltage due to a wire’s

resistance and length
Safety Considerations
 Unsafe Wiring
– Splices outside the box
– Currents in grounding conductors
– Indoor rated cable used outdoors
– Single conductor cable exposed
– “Hot” fuses
Safety Equipment
 Disconnects  Overcurrent Protection
Grounding
 Provides a current path for

surplus electricity to travel too
(earth)
Solar Site & Mounting
Part 6: Learning Objectives
 Understand azimuth and altitude

 Describe proper orientation and tilt angle for
solar collection
 Describe the concept of “solar window”
 Evaluate structural considerations
 Pros and cons of different mounting
techniques
Site Selection – Panel Direction
 Face true
south
 Correct for
magnetic
declination
Altitude and Azimuth
Sun Chart for 40 degrees N Latitude
Solar Pathfinder
 An essential tool in finding a good site for

solar energy is the Solar Pathfinder
 Provides daily, monthly, and yearly solar
hours estimates
Site Selection – Tilt Angle
Max performance is
achieved when panels
are perpendicular to the
sun’s rays
Year round tilt = latitude

Winter + 15 lat.
Summer – 15 lat.
Solar Access
 Optimum Solar Window 9 am – 3 pm
 Array should have NO SHADING in this

window (or longer if possible)
General Considerations
 Weather characteristics
– Wind intensity
– Estimated snowfall
 Site characteristics
– Corrosive salt water
– Animal interference
 Human factors
– Vandalism
– Theft protection
– Aesthetics
General Considerations Continued
 Loads and time of use

 Distance from power conditioning equipment
 Accessibility for maintenance
 Zoning codes
Basic Mounting Options
 Fixed
– Roof, ground, pole
 Integrated
 Tracking
– Pole (active & passive)
Pole Mount Considerations
 Ask manufacturer for wind loading

specification for your array
– Pole size
– Amount of concrete
– Etc.
 Array can be in close proximity to the house,
but doesn’t require roof penetrations
Tracking Considerations
 Can increase system performance by:

– 15% in winter months
– 30% in summer months
 Adds additional costs to the array

Passive Vs. Active
Active:
– Linear actuator
motors controlled by
sensors follow the
sun throughout the
day
Passive Vs. Active
Passive:
– Have no motors,
controls, or gears
– Use the changing
weight of a gaseous
refrigerant within a
sealed frame
member to track the
sun
Roof Mount Considerations
 simple and cheap to

install
 offer no flexibility in
the orientation of
your solar panel
 can only support
small photovoltaic
units.
Roof Mount Considerations
 Penetrate the roof as little as possible
 Weather proof all holes to prevent leaks
– May require the aid of a professional roofer
 Re-roof before putting modules up
 Leave 4-6” airspace between roof and
modules
 On sloped roofs, fasten mounts to rafters not
decking
Building Integrated PV
Costs
Solar Energy System
 $10,000-$15,000 1 kW system
 $16,000-$20,000 2 kW system
 $35,000-$45,000 5 kW system
 About half the power for a conventional home
Solar Hot Water System
 usually between $5,000 to $6,000
Solar Energy Incentives
 Tax credits and deductions
– 30% tax credit
 Local & state grant and loan programs
 PA Alternative Energy Investment Fund
– Pennsylvania Sunshine Program
 35% rebate
Further Information on Incentives
 www.sedacog.erc.org
– SEDA COG
 www.desireusa.org
 www.solarpowerrock.com/pennsylvania
Energy Efficiency
 Identify cost effective electrical load reduction

strategies
 List problematic loads for PV systems
 Describe penalties of PV system components
 Explain phantom loads
 Evaluate types of lighting; efficiency
comparison
1. Conservation
2. Efficiency
3. Renewable Energy
Practical Efficiency Recommendations
 For every $1 spent on energy efficiency, you save

$3-$5 on system cost
 Start with your load use:
– Do it efficiently
– Do with less
– Do without
– Do it while the sun shines
Improving Energy Efficiency in the
Home
 Space Heating:
Domestic hot water heating
– Solar thermal
Insulation
– Passive solar design
Propane/natural gas
– Wood
On demand
stoveshot water
– Propane
– Solar hot water
– Radiant Floor/ baseboard
– Efficient windows
Improving Energy Efficiency in the
Home
 Washing machines
Cooling
– Ceiling fans
Energy efficient front loading machine
– Window shades
– Insulation
– Trees
– Reflective attic cover
– Attic fan
Phantom Loads
Phantom Loads
 Cost the United States:

– $3 Billion / year
– 10 power plants
– 18 million tons of CO2
– More pollution than 6 million cars
 TV’s and VCR’s alone cost the US $1
Billion/year in lost electricity
Lighting Efficiency
 Factors effecting light efficiency

– Type of light
– Positioning of lights
– Fixture design
– Color of ceilings and walls
Incandescent Lamps
 Advantages
Disadvantages
– Low efficiency
Most common
– Least life
Short expensive
~ 750 hours
– Pleasing light
Electricity is conducted through a filament which resists

the flow of electricity, heats up, and glows
Efficiency increases as lamp wattage increases
FROM THE POWER PLANT TO YOUR HOME

INCANDESCENT BULBS ARE LESS THAN 2%
EFFICIENT
Fluorescent Bulbs
 Less wattage, same amount of lumens

 Longer life (~10,000 hours)
 May have difficulty starting in cold
environments
 Not good for lights that are repeatedly turned
on and off
 Contain a small amount of mercury
Light Emitting Diode (LED) Lights
 Advantages
Disadvantages
– Expensive efficient
Extremely (although prices are decreasing steadily)
– Long
A relatively
life (100,000
new technology
hours)
– Rugged
– No radio frequency interference
Ready for a field tour?
 Questions?
If you are interested in anything you have seen today
and would like to get involved, please contact any
member of the Solar Scholars team:
Barbara Summers or Brian Chiu
(bls030@bucknell.edu or bc021@bucknell.edu)
Solar Scholars Website
http://www.bucknell.edu/x20303.xml
The END
 Thank you for participating in this lecture

series
 Now lets go out into the field and take a look

at the systems that we have already
installed.
Batteries
Grid-Tied System
 Advantages
– Low: Easy to install
(less components)
– Grid can supply
power
 Disadvantages
– No power when grid
goes down
 Battery basics
 Battery functions
 Types of batteries
 Charging/discharging
 Depth of discharge
 Battery safety
Batteries in Series and Parallel
 Series connections
– Builds voltage
 Parallel connections
– Builds amp-hour capacity
Battery Basics
The Terms:
 Battery
 A device that stores electrical energy (chemical energy to
electrical energy and vice-versa)
 Capacity
 Amount of electrical energy the battery will contain
 State of Charge (SOC)
 Available battery capacity
 Depth of Discharge (DOD)
 Energy taken out of the battery
 Efficiency
 Energy out/Energy in (typically 80-85%)
Functions of a Battery
 Storage for the night

 Storage during cloudy weather
 Portable power
 Surge for starting motors
**Due to the expense and inherit inefficiencies of batteries it is

recommended that they only be used when absolutely necessary (i.e.
in remote locations or as battery backup for grid-tied applications if
power failures are common/lengthy)
Batteries: The Details
Types:
 Primary (single use)
 Secondary (recharged)
 Shallow Cycle (20% DOD)
 Deep Cycle (50-80% DOD)
Charging/Discharging:
 Unless lead-acid batteries are charged up to 100%, they will loose
capacity over time
 Batteries should be equalized on a regular basis
Battery Capacity
Capacity:
 Amps x Hours = Amp-hours (Ah)
100 amps for 1 hour
100 Amp-hours = 1 amp for 100 hours
20 amps for 5 hours
 Capacity changes with Discharge Rate

 The higher the discharge rate the lower the capacity and vice versa
 The higher the temperature the higher the percent of rated capacity
Rate of Charge or Discharge
Rate = C/T
C = Battery’s rated capacity (Amp-hours)

T = The cycle time period (hours)
Maximum recommend charge/discharge rate =

C/3 to C/5
Battery Safety
 Batteries are EXTREMELY DANGEROUS; handle with

care!
– Keep batteries out of living space, and vent battery
box to the outside
– Use a spill containment vessel
– Don’t mix batteries (different types or old with new)
– Always disconnect batteries, and make sure tools
have insulated handles to prevent short circuiting
Grid-Tied System
(With Batteries)
 Complexity
– High: Due to the
addition of batteries
 Grid Interaction
– Grid still supplements
power
– When grid goes down
batteries supply power
to loads (aka battery
backup)
Controllers & Inverters
Grid-Tied System
 Advantages
– Low: Easy to install
(less components)
– Grid can supply
power
 Disadvantages
– No power when grid
goes down
 Controller basics
 Controller features
 Inverter basics
 Specifying an inverter
Controller Basics
Function:
 To protect batteries from being overcharged
Features:
 Maximum Power Point
Tracking
– Tracks the peak
power point of the
array (can improve
power production by
20%)!!
Additional Controller Features
 Voltage Stepdown Controller: compensates for differing

voltages between array and batteries (ex. 48V array
charging 12V battery)
– By using a higher voltage array, smaller wire can be
used from the array to the batteries
 Temperature Compensation: adjusts the charging of
batteries according to ambient temperature
Other Controller Considerations
 When specifying a controller you must consider:

– DC input and output voltage
– Input and output current
– Any optional features you need
 Controller redundancy: On a stand-alone system it might
be desirable to have more then one controller per array in
the event of a failure
Inverter Basics
Function:
 An electronic device used to convert direct current (DC)
electricity into alternating current (AC) electricity
Drawbacks:
 Efficiency penalty
 Complexity (read: a component which can fail)
 Cost!!
Specifying an Inverter
 What type of system are you designing?

– Stand-alone
– Stand-alone with back-up source (generator)
– Grid-Tied (without batteries)
– Grid-Tied (with battery back-up)
 Specifics:
– AC Output (watts)
– Input voltage (based on modules and wiring)
– Output voltage (120V/240V residential)
– Input current (based on modules and wiring)
– Surge Capacity
– Efficiency
– Weather protection
– Metering/programming

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Alternative Energy

To recall the principles of photovoltaics

To identify the components of a

The solar cell is the smallest unit of the PV system

There are two types of manufactured PV’s:

PV cell has a thin layer of silicon 1/100th of an inch

Silicon is layered with other materials to create the

Anatomy of a Solar Cell

Boron is used for the positive layer

Phosphorus is used for the negative layer

Photons generated from the sun energize and

The energy released in the process

The purest silicon structure comes from the

Multiple crystals cast together and sliced into

A chemical process that deposits silicon on a

To improve PV efficiency and reduce cost, the

Toxic and hazardous chemicals are used

When a module is exposed to fire or an

Modules have output capacities of 14 to 15%

Monocrystalline achieves the highest efficiency in

Its production cost is higher than other silicon types

Pure molten silicon is cast into molds, then

• Less expensive to make

Made by vaporizing silicon and depositing it

Some are flexible and are able to be rolled

The flexibility of amorphous technology allows

Production costs less than other

A square foot of amorphous silicon

Monocrystalline Silicon About 24 14-17

Polycrystalline Silicon About 18 13-15

Amorphous Silicon About 13 5-7

Single crystal 10 - 17%

Electric Energy Output

• Modules are rated in DC Watts at STC (all manufacturers)

 Surface temperature can be measured using

Pyranometer Laser Thermometer

I-V for a solar cell under an

Modules/Array (Tiles or Shingles)

PV cells connected in series and parallel –

Photovoltaic cells connected

Weather-proof electrical connections

In rare occasions junction boxes can overheat

Modules have a variety of sizes and rated

An average size crystalline module weighs

Photovoltaic panels have no moving parts and

Two or more modules connected

Residential system outputs of

The average household in California uses

Array in Series and Parallel

A PV system in the 3 to 4 kilowatt range would

A 30 module array would operate at over

This weight spread equally over a 420 square

PV tiles or shingles can be integrated

It takes more time, wiring individual

PV tile or shingle roofing system

In High Fire Hazard Severity Zones, roofing

Manufacturers of PV shingles have

Lead acid batteries are used

Batteries are used in off-grid PV systems,

Without batteries, a grid-tied PV system

Pinnacles National Monument in California installed a 9.6-

A battery is an electrochemical cell