EXTRUSION

&
FORGING OF METALS
MECH - PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

MECH MLRITM
 Objectives:

 Introduction
 Classification of extrusion processes
 Cold extrusion and cold-forming
 Hot extrusion
 Hydrostatic extrusion
 Extrusion of tubing
 Production of seamless pipe and tubing
 Extrusion equipment (Presses, dies and tools)
 Deformation, lubrication, and defects in
extrusion MECH MLRITM
 What is extrusion?
• It is the process by which a block of metal is reduced in cross-section
by forcing it to flow through a die orifice under high pressure

The products of extrusion are generally called "extrudates".

MECH MLRITM
 Process
• A heated billet cut from continuous casting is located in a
heated container.
• By applying pressure by means of a ram to one end of the billet the
metal flows through the die, located at the other end of the container to
produce a section, the cross sectional shape of which is defined by the
shape of the die
Die

Ram Billet
Extruded part

Dummy plate Container

MECH MLRITM
(extrusion pad)
• In general, extrusion is used to produce cylindrical bars
or hollow tubes or for the starting stock for drawing rod,
cold extrusion or forged products.
• Most metals are hot extruded due to large amount of
forces required in extrusion.
• Complex shape can be extruded from the more readily
extrudable metals such as aluminium.
• If better properties are required then it may be heat
treated or cold worked

Die
Ram Billet Extruded part

MECH MLRITM
• The reaction of the extrusion billet with the container and die
results in high compressive stresses which are effective in
reducing cracking of materials during primary breakdown
from the ingot.

Die
Pressure
Billet Extruded part

Compressive stresses will help in increasing the utilisation of

extrusion in the working of metals that are difficult to form like
stainless steels, nickel-based alloys, and other high-temperature
materials. MECH MLRITM
Extrusion

MECH MLRITM
 Classification of extrusion processes

Extrusio
n

By Operating By
By Direction
Temperature Equipment

Direct / Indirect / Horizontal Vertica

Hot
Forwar l
Backwar Cold
d
d MECH MLRITM
There are several ways to classify metal extrusion processes

• Direct / Indirect extrusion

By Direction • Forward / backward extrusion

By temperature Hot / cold

extrusion

By equipment Horizontal and vertical

extrusion

MECH MLRITM
 Direct/forward

Indirect/backward

Latera
l
Methods of Extrusion forging
extrusion
Impact Extrusion

Hooker extrusion

Hydrostatic extrusion
MECH MLRITM
 Cold Extrusion
Cold extrusion is the process done at room temperature or
slightly elevated temperatures.
 This process can be used for most materials-subject to designing
robust enough tooling that can withstand the stresses created by
extrusion.

Examples: of the metals that can be extruded are

lead, tin, aluminium alloys, copper, titanium,
molybdenum, vanadium, steel. Examples of parts
that are cold extruded are collapsible tubes,
aluminium cans, cylinders, gear blanks.

MECH MLRITM
 COLD EXTRUSION
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

• Improved Mechanical • Tooling cost is high, therefore

properties.
• Good control of
dimensional tolerances.
• Improved surface finish.
• No need for heating
billet.
• No oxidation takes
place.
large production lot size is
required.
• Special coating is required to
reduce friction and to maintain
a lubricant film throughout.
• Limited deformation can be
obtained.

MECH MLRITM
MECH MLRITM
 Hot extrusion
• Hot extrusion is done at fairly high tem peratures
approximately 50 to 75 % of the melting point of the metal.
• The pressures can range from 35-700 MPa
• The most commonly used extrusion process is the hot
direct process.
• The cross-sectional shape of the extrusion is defined by the
shape of the die.

• Due to the high and pressures and its

temperatures life as well as other
components,
detrimental good
effectlubrication
on the is d ienecessary.
• Oil and graphite work at lower temperatures, whereas
at higher temperatures glass powder is used.
MECH MLRITM
 HOT EXTRUSION

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

 Complex solid or  High equipment set up and

hollow
shapes can be produced.
 Small quantities can be
economically produced.
 Delivery times are often far
shorter than alternative
processes.
maintenance cost.
 Extrusion process for metals is at
very high temperatures.
 Die is preheated to increase its
life, so there are chances of
oxidation of hot billet.
 Process Wastage is higher as
compared to rolling
 Non-homogeneous.

MECH MLRITM
MECH MLRITM
 Cold extrusion Hot extrusion
• It is done at room temp or • It is fairly done at high
near room temp (0.5-0.7
temp Tm)
(above recrystallization
• The advantages of this • temp)Good
over hot extrusion are the lubrication is needed
lack of oxidation, higher since it works at elevated
strength due to cold (glass powders are
working, closer tolerances, temp
better surface finish, and • Due
used) to the high temperatures
fast extrusion and pressures and its
detrimental effect on the die
life as well as other
components.
• So, good lubrication is
necessary.

MECH MLRITM
 Direct/forward extrusion
 The metal billet is placed in a container and driven through the die
by the ram.
 The dummy block or pressure plate, is placed at the end of the ram
in contact with the billet.
 Friction is at the die and container wall  requires higher pressure
than indirect extrusion.

Die

Ram Billet Extruded part

Dummy plate Container

(extrusion pad) MECH MLRITM
1 Extrusion
2 Die backer
3 Die
4 Billet
5 Dummy block
6 Pressing ram
7 Container liner
8 Container body

MECH MLRITM
 Function Of Dummy Block
 To repeatedly transmit the force of the ram, at high
temperature, to the alloy.

 To expand quickly under load and maintain a secure seal with the
container wall.
 To separate cleanly from the billet at the end of the stroke.

 To cause no gas entrapment that can result in blistering, or

damage the face of the container and/or dummy block.
 To compensate for minor press misalignment.
 To be quickly and easily removed and replaced.
 To function effectively until a production run is complete.
MECH MLRITM
 Process:
 Hot metal billet is placed in the container
Compressive forces are applied on the metal billet by ram
(hydraulically driven)
 Compressive forces will make the metal advance in
the
container, and then through the die opening

Hot Metal is placed

in the container

Extruded metal will

Metal is pressed by
further be processed
Ram

Metal will advance

Metal will flow through
in container, and
the die opening
thenthrough die MECH MLRITM
 Indirect extrusion / Backward extrusion :
 The hollow ram containing the die is kept stationary and the container
with the billet is caused to move.
 Friction at the die only (no relative movement at the container wall)
requires roughly constant pressure.
 Hollow ram limits the applied load.

Die Ram

Billet Extruded part

Closure plate Container

MECH MLRITM
Indirect extrusion

MECH MLRITM
Typical curves of extrusion Vs. ram travel for direct and
indirect extrusion
MECH MLRITM
Lateral extrusion
• Container is in vertical
position and the die is
located in the side
• The metal is kept in the
container such that the
vertical ram applies force on
the metal
• The extruded part comes
out from the bottom die
• This is suitable for very light
alloys that have low
melting points

MECH MLRITM
 Impact Extrusion
Impact extrusion is a cold manufacturing process similar to extrusion and
drawing by which products are made with a metal slug.
• The slug is pressed at a high velocity with extreme force into a
die/mould by a punch.
• Process is restricted to soft metals like lead, aluminum, and copper

 It uses heavy duty mechanical

presses
 Metal collapsible tubes,
disposable tubes, ointment
tubes, deodorant bottles are
produced by this process

MECH MLRITM
Impact Extrusion

MECH MLRITM
MECH MLRITM
 Impact Extrusion
Advantages Limitations

••Simple
Simpleand veryand • Limited to soft metals like
economical
very economical Pb, Al, and Cu
•Suitable for collapsible
• Suitable
tubes for • More wear
collapsiblecost
•Production tubes
very low • Feeding lubricant is bit
••Excellent
Production cost finish
surface very low difficult since it splashes
••Fast production
Excellent rates
surface finish out
• Fast production rates

MECH MLRITM
Applications

 Although the process is generally performed cold, considerable heating

results from the high speed deformation.
 A short lengths of hollow shapes, such as collapsible toothpaste tubes
or spray cans.
 Requires soft materials such as Al, Pb, Cu or Sn.

MECH MLRITM
 Hydrostatic Extrusion
• In this process the billet is completely surrounded by
a pressurized liquid, except where the billet contacts the
die.
• This process can be done hot, warm, or cold, however the
temperature is limited by the stability of the fluid used.
• The process m ust be carried out in a sealed cylinder
to contain the hydrostatic medium.
• The fluid can be pressurized in two ways:
• Constant-rate extrusion: A ram or plunger is used to pressurize the
fluid inside the container.
• Constant-pressure extrusion: A p u m p is used, possibly with a
pressure intensifier, to pressurize the fluid, which is then pumped
to the container.

MECH MLRITM
 Pressure is applied through a fluid surrounding the billet
 Fluid pressure forces the billet into die
 Die compresses the metal with very less friction

MECH MLRITM
Hydrostatic Extrusion

MECH MLRITM
Hydrostatic Extrusion
Advantages Limitations
• No friction between the • The billets have to
container and the billet reduces prepared
be by tapering one
force requirements. end so that it matches the
• This ultimately allows for faster die entry angle.
speeds, higher reduction • Only cold extrusion
ratios, and lower billet
temperatures.
possible
is
• Usually the d u ctility of
the m aterial increases • It can be difficult to contain
pressures
w hen are applied.
high the fluid, under the effects
of high pressures (up to 2
• An even flow of
GPa).
• material.
Large billets and large
cross-
sections can be extruded.
• No billet residue is left on MECH
the MLRITM
container walls.
 Horizontal extrusion process
 The layout of operating machine is horizontal and
movement of billet as well as of ram is horizontal in
direction.

 15-50 MN capacity.
 It is mostly used for
Commercial extrusion of bars
and shapes.

MECH MLRITM
 Vertical extrusion process

• The movement of billet and ram is vertical in

orientation.
• 3-20 MN capacity.
• Mainly used in the production of thin-wall tubing.

MECH MLRITM
 TUBE EXTRUSION & PIPE MAKING
•Tubes can be produced by extrusion by attaching a mandrel to the end of the
ram. The clearance between the mandrel and the die wall determines the wall
thickness of the tube.
•Tubes are produced either by starting with a hollow billet or by a two- step
extrusion in which a solid billet is first pierced and then extruded.

MECH MLRITM
Extrusion of tubing
Extrusion of tubing from a solid billet

• To produce tubing by extrusion from a solid

billet, the ram may also be fitted with a
piercing mandrel. As the ram moves
forward, the metal is forced over the mandrel
and through the hole in the die, causing a
long hollow tube. Just like toothpaste, only
hollow.

Extrusion of tubing from a hollow billet

• If the billets are hollow, a rod that matches
the diameter of the cast hole in the billet (but
slightly smaller than the hole in the die at the
opposite end of the chamber) are used.
• Note: the bore of the hole will become
oxidized resulting in a tube with an
oxidized inside surface.
MECH MLRITM
EXTRUSION TUBING WITH A PORTHOLE
DIE •The metal is forced to flow into
A sketch of a porthole extrusion die
Porthole extrusion
Example: pyramid porthole dies MECH MLRITM
separate streams and around the
central bridge, which supports a short
mandrel.
•The separate streams of metal
which flow through the ports are
brought together in a welding
chamber surrounding the mandrel,
and the metal exits from the die as a
tube.
•Since the separate metal streams
are jointed within the die, where there
is no atmosphere contamination, a
perfectly sound weld is obtained.
•Porthole extrusion is used to
produce hollow unsymmetrical
shapes in aluminium alloys.
Extrusion of seamless
tubes (With a fixed
mandrel)

Die

Ram BilleMt andrel

Dummy plate Container

(extrusion pad)
MECH MLRITM
Extrusion of seamless
tubes (With a floating
mandrel)

Die

Ram Billet Mandrel

Dummy plate Container

(extrusion pad)
MECH MLRITM
• Both the operations can be carried out with
hallow billet or solid one
• Solid billets are always preferable since creating a
hallow billet consumes time and wastes more
material

Die

Ram M a ndrelBillet

Dummy plate Container

(extrusion pad)
MECH MLRITM
Seamless Extrusion

MECH MLRITM
 DIE MATERIALS
 Commonly used materials are Tool Steels and Carbides
 Diamond dies are used for fine wire.
 For improved wear resistance, steel dies may be chromium
plated, and carbide dies may be coated with titanium nitride
 For Hot drawing, cast-steel dies are used .
 Dies are made from highly alloy tools steels or
ceramics (Si3N4).
 Heat treatments such as nitriding are required (several times) to
increase hardness (1000-1100 Hvor 65-70 HRC). This improves die life.

MECH MLRITM
LUBRICATION
NEED -
Proper lubrication is essential in extruding, in order to
improve die life, reduce drawing forces and
temperature, and improve surface finish.

Types of Lubrication-

a) Wet : Dies and Rods are completely immersed

in
lubricant.
b) Dry : Surface of the rod to be drawn is coated with a
lubricant.
c) Coating : Rod or Wire is coated with a soft metal that
acts as a solid lubricant.
d) Ultrasonic Vibration :MECH
of the dies and mandrels.
MLRITM
Factors affecting the extrusion force

1. Type of extrusion

2. Extrusion ratio

3. Working temperature

4. Deformation

5. Frictional conditions at the die and the container

wall
MECH MLRITM
MATHEMATICAL
RELATIONS
1. Extrusion ratio, R -
It is defined as the ratio of the initial cross-sectional area
, Ao, of the billet to the final cross-sectional area , Af,
after extrusion.
R ~ 40:1 for hot extrusion of
A0
steels. R ~ 400:1 for aluminum.
R A
f
2.Fractional reduction in area, r
-
1
A f R 
r  1  A0 1 r
MECH MLRITM
 Contd..
3. Velocity -

Velocity of extruded product = (Ram velocity) x

(R)

4. Extrusion force
A -
P  kA0 0

ln Af
where k = extrusion
constant,
MECH MLRITM
 Forces in Extrusion
Process Variables in Direct Extrusion

Process variables in direct extrusion. The die angle, reduction in cross-

section, extrusion speed, billet temperature, and lubrication all affect the
extrusion pressure.

MECH MLRITM
Extrusion Force

 Ao
Extrusion force, F  Aol ln 
 Af

Extrusion constant k for various metals at different temperatures.

Source: After P. Loewenstein
MECH MLRITM
 Extrusion Defects
• Defects in extruded products occur predominantly
due friction and non-homogeneous material
to
flow. temperature variations across the
• Further, hot extrusion can billet also
inhomogeneous
during deformation. lead to
• Three types of defects are prominent in extrusion.
• They are:
1. Inhomogeneous deformation
2. Surface cracks
3. Internal cracks
MECH MLRITM
• Inhomogeneous deformation in direct extrusion
provide the dead zone along the outer surface of the billet
due to the movement of the metal in the centre being
higher than the periphery.
• After 2/3 of the billet is extruded, the outer surface of the
billet (normally with oxidised skin) moves toward the
centre and extrudes to the through the die, resulting in
internal oxide stringers transverse section can be seen as an
annular ring of oxide.

Container wall
Extrusion Defects
friction

Container wall Extrusion Defects

temp
MECH MLRITM
• Surface cracking, ranging from a badly roughened surface
to repetitive transverse cracking called fir-tree cracking,
see Fig.
• This is due to longitudinal tensile stresses generated as the
extrusion passes through the die.
• In hot extrusion, this form of cracking usually
intergranular
is and is associated with hot shortness.
• The most common case is too high ram speed for the
extrusion temperature.
• At lower temperature, sticking in the die land and the
sudden building up of pressure and then breakaway will
cause transverse cracking.

Surface cracks from heavy

die friction in extrusion

MECH MLRITM
Internal cracks or centre burst:
• It occurs because the stresses within the workpiece
break the material causing cracks to form along the
central axis of the extruded region
• High die angles will favour centre cracking
• Metal must be free from inclusions to avoid centre
burst
• High extrusion ratio also will favour centre burst

MECH MLRITM
Forging
• MECH - PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

MECH MLRITM
Subjects of interest
• Introduction
• Forging operations & Principles
• Tools
• Classification of forging processes
- Smith forging
- Hammer or drop forging
- Roll forging
- Rotary forging
- Press forging
- Open-die forging
- Closed-die forging
• Forging Hammers
• Typical forging defects
• Cold forging
• Forces in forging operations

MECH MLRITM
Introduction
•Forging is the working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or pressing.
•The oldest of the metalworking arts (primitive blacksmith).
•Replacement of machinery occurred during early the Industrial revolution.
•Forging machines are now capable of making parts ranging in size of a bolt to a turbine
rotor.
•Most forging operations are carried out hot,
although certain metals may be cold-forged.

MECH MLRITM
IMPORTANT FEATURES OF FORGING
• Forging is a deformation processing of materials through compressive stress.
It is carried out either hot or cold.
• Forging is the process by which metal is heated and is shaped by plastic
deformation by suitably applying compressive force
• Usually the compressive force is in the form of hammer blows using a power
hammer or a press. Presses or hammers powered by compressed air, electricity,
hydraulics or steam.

Processes
1. Drawn out: length increases, cross-section decreases
2. Upset: length decreases, cross-section increases
3. Squeezed in closed compression dies: produces multidirectional flow

MECH MLRITM
Advantages:

• Produce a piece that is stronger than an equivalent cast or machined part

• Its refines the internal grain structure and improves physical properties of
the metal (such as strength, ductility and toughness)

• These are consistent from piece to piece, without any of the porosity, voids,
inclusions and other defects

• Have high strength to weight ratio (design of aircraft frame members.)

Disadvantages:

• Production forging involves significant capital expenditure for machinery,

tooling, facilities and personnel

• A high-temperature furnace is required to heat ingots or billets

MECH MLRITM
Forging
Applications
• Applications of forging include
1. Bolts,
2. Disks,
3. Gears,
4. Turbine disk,
5. Crank shaft,
6. Connecting rod,
7. Valve bodies,
8. Small components for hydraulic circuits etc.
MECH MLRITM
Crank shaft
Turbine disk

MECH MLRITM
Connecting rod
CLASSIFICATION OF FORGING
• Based on type of loading(forging equipment's), it is classified in to following

1. Hammer forging

2. Press forging
• Based on the operating temperature of the workpiece, it is classified in to
following

1. Hot forging

2. Warm forging

3. Cold forging
• Based on arrangement of dies,it is classified in to following

1. Open die forging

2. Closed die forging

MECH MLRITM
STEPS INVOLVED IN FORGING
PROCESS

• Sawing the extruded or continuously cast feedstock,

• Heating the blank,
• Upsetting or bending,
• Forging (rough and final forging),
• Heat treatment
• Final inspection.

MECH MLRITM
Forging operations

Edging is used to shape the ends of the bars

and to gather metal. The metal flow is
confined in the horizontal direction but it is
free to flow laterally to fill the die.

Drawing is used to reduce the cross-sectional area of the

workpiece with concurrent increase in length.

Piercing and punching are used to produce holes in

metals.
MECH MLRITM
MECH MLRITM
 Fullering is used to reduce the cross-sectional area of a portion
of the stock. The metal flow is outward and away from the centre
of the fuller. i.e., forging of connecting rod for an internal-
combustion engine.

•Fuller move fast and moves metal perpendicular to the face

Fullers come
in different
Shapes

Fullers
MECH MLRITM
Fullering

MECH MLRITM
 Swaging is used to produce a bar with a smaller
diameter (using concave dies).

• Swaging is a special type of forging in which

metal is formed by a succession of rapid
hammer blows

• Swaging provides a reduced round cross

section suitable for tapping, threading,
upsetting or other subsequent forming and
machining operations.

Swaging at the ends, ready for next

forming process.

MECH MLRITM
MECH MLRITM
MECH MLRITM
MECH MLRITM
MECH MLRITM
Smith Forging
• This is the traditional forging operation done openly or in-openly dies by the
village black smith or modern shop floor by manual hammering or by the power
hammer.
• The process involves heating the stock in the black smith hearth and then
beating it over the anvil. To get the desire shape the operator has to manipulate
the component in between the blows.

MECH MLRITM
Smith Forging

MECH MLRITM
MECH MLRITM
Drop forging

MECH MLRITM
MECH MLRITM
Hammer forging

MECH MLRITM
ROLL FORGING
• Roll forging is a process where round or flat bar stock is reduced in
thickness and increased in
length.
• Roll forging is performed using two cylindrical or semi-cylindrical rolls,
a heated bar is inserted into the rolls and when it hits a spot the rolls
rotate and the bar is progressively shaped as it is rolled through the
machine.
• The piece is then transferred to the next set of grooves or turned around
and reinserted into the same grooves.
• This continues until the desired shape and size is achieved. The
advantage of this process is there is no flash and it imparts a favorable
grain structure into the workpiece.

MECH MLRITM
MECH MLRITM
ROLL FORGING

RING ROLL FORGING

MECH MLRITM
ROTARY
FORGING
In this process the punch is given orbital rocking motion while pressing
the workpiece. As a result of this the area of contact between work and punch
is reduced.

Therefore lower forging loads are sufficient. The final part is formed in
several smaller steps. Example of parts produced by this process include
bevel gears, wheels, bearing rings

MECH MLRITM
WORKING
PRINCIPLE
In rotary forging (Fig), the axis of
the upper die is tilted at a
slight angle with respect to
the axis of the lower die,
causing the forging force to be
applied to only a small area of
the work piece.

The tilt angle between the

two dies plays a major role in
determining the amount of
forging force that is applied to
the work piece.
MECH MLRITM
Radial (Or Rotary)
Forging

Radial Forging of a
MECH MLRITM
Shaft
Advantages
Economical:
1. No material waste- near net shaping is a chip less operation
2. Simplifies manufacturing- eliminates expensive secondary machining and
brazing operations
3. Inexpensive long life tooling
•
Increased material strength:
1. Strength, hardness and surface finish improved through orbital cold working
2. Grain structures rearranged
3. Less expensive materials achieve tensile strength upgrades after the orbital cold
working process.

Consistent quality:
•
1. Higher strength to weight ratio in structural components
2. Low friction forging operation extends die life
3. Repeatable low force forging process yields accurate manufacturing runs

MECH MLRITM
Disadvantages
1. The principal disadvantages of rotary forging lie in the relative
newness of the current technology..

2. A major problem lies in the design of rotary forge machines.

3. The large lateral forces associated with the unique die motion
make the overall frame design of the machines more difficult.

4. These large forces must be properly supported by the frame in order

for the forge to maintain a consistent level of accuracy.

MECH MLRITM
Applications
1. Automobile industry
2. Aerospace
• a) cylinders
• b) Tube
• c) Cones
• d) Rings
• e) Rim machine

MECH MLRITM
Orbital Forging – An Introduction
Orbital forging, is a two-die forging process that
deforms only a small portion of the workpiece at a time
in a continuous manner.

MECH MLRITM
Orbital Forging

Various Stages in Orbital Forging Processes

MECH MLRITM
Orbital Forging

MECH MLRITM
MECH MLRITM
MECH MLRITM
Close die Forging

MECH MLRITM
MECH MLRITM
MECH MLRITM
Cold Forging- Starts at room temperature
(RT to 600-800 F)

Warm Forging - Below or near recrystallization

temperature (900 F - 1800 F for steel)

**Tool designs for cold & warm forging are similar, but
temperatures and lubricants are different

Hot Forging - Above recrystallization

temperature (1800 F - 2200 F for steel,
800 F for Al)
MECH MLRITM
 COLD FORGING
• Cold Forging is a cold working process where the material is squeezed into
a die and the finished parts assume the shape of the die. This process is also
known as Cold Heading.

MECH MLRITM
 Cold Forging
- Forming Sequence -

Rear View Mirror Holder (Cold Forged)

MECH MLRITM
Cold Forged Components

MECH MLRITM
Cold Forged Parts

MECH MLRITM
HOT FORGING
It is the controlled plastic deformation of metals at elevated temperature by using
the external pressure.
The pressure may be applied by hand hammers or Power
hammers . So in this pressure applied is not continuous but
intermittent. Following are some of the examples of hot
forging

1. HAMMER OR SMITH FORGING

2. DROP OR DIE FORGING
3. PRESS FORGING
4. UPSET FORGING
5. ROLL FORGING
6. SWAGGING

MECH MLRITM
Examples Of Hot Forgings

MECH MLRITM
Hot Forging

MECH MLRITM
 Cold, Warm, & Hot Forging
- Advantages & Disadvantages -

Cold Warm Hot

Advantages Advantages Advantages
• Precision Process • Combines Advantages • Can Forge
(Tight Tolerances) of Cold & Hot Forging Complex Shapes
• Improved Part Strength • Better Formability • Good Formability
• Better Surface Finish
• Lower Forming • Low Forming
• Material Conservation
Pressures Pressures
• Higher Deformation • Can Forge Parts of
Disadvantages Ratio Higher Weight and
• High Forming Pressures • No Annealing Required Volume
• Several Pre-Forming Disadvantages Disadvantages
Steps Needed • High Tooling Costs • Formation of Scale
• Annealing Steps May • Tooling Must Withstand • Decreased Accuracy
Be Required During Forming Pressures as well (Larger Tolerances)
Process as High Temperatures
• Low Formability

MECH MLRITM
 HAMMERS
• BOARD HAMMERS

• AIR-LIFT HAMMERS

• STEAM OR AIR-POWERED HAMMERS

PRESSES
• MECHANICAL PRESSES

• SCREW PRESSES

• HYDRAULIC PRESSES

MECH MLRITM
Hammer and press forging processes

Forging hammers There are two basic types of forging hammers used;

• Board hammer
• Power hammer

Forging presses There are two basic types of forging presses available;

• Mechanical presses
• Hydraulic presses

MECH MLRITM
Board hammer –forging
hammer
• The upper die and ram are raised by friction rolls
gripping the board.
• After releasing the board, the ram falls under gravity to
produce the blow energy.
• The hammer can strike between 60-150 blows per
minute depending on size and capacity.
• The board hammer is an energy- restricted machine.
The blow energy supplied equal the potential energy
due to the weight and the height of the fall.

Potential energy = mgh …Eq 1

•This energy will be delivered to the metal workpiece to

produce plastic deformation.
Board hammer
MECH MLRITM
Forging hammer or drop hammer

• Provide rapid impact blows to the surface of the metal.

Belt
• Dies are in two halves

TUP - Lower : fixed to anvil

- Upper : moves up and down with the TUP.

Metal
• Energy (from a gravity drop) is adsorbed onto the metal, in
which the maximum impact is on the metal surface.
Anvil
• Dies are expensive being accurately machined from special
Drop hammer alloys (susceptible to thermal shock).

• Drop forging is good for mass production of complex

shapes.

MECH MLRITM
Example: Forging hammer or drop hammer

The energy supplied by the blow

is equal to the potential energy
due to the weight of the ram and
the height of the fall.

Potential energy = mgh

Forging machine
MECH MLRITM
Hydraulic press forging

High pressure fluid

• Using a hydraulic press or a mechanical press to

Ram
forge the metal, therefore, gives continuous forming at
a slower rate.

Die • Provide deeper penetration.

• Better properties (more homogeneous).

Metal

Die • Equipment is expensive.

Hydraulic press

MECH MLRITM
Example: Hydraulic Press forging
• Hydraulic presses are load-
restricted machines in which
hydraulic pressure moves a piston
in a cylinder.

• The full press load is available at

any point during the full stroke of
the ram. Therefore, hydraulic
presses are ideally suited for
extrusion-type forging operation.

• Due to slow speed, contact time is

longer at the die-metal interface,
which causes problems such as heat
lost from workpiece and die
deterioration.
• Also provide close-tolerance
forging.
• Hydraulic presses are more
expensive than mechanical presses
and hammers.

MECH MLRITM
Mechanical press forging
Crank press translates rotary motion into
reciprocating linear motion of the press slide.
•The ram stroke is shorter than in a hammer or hydraulic
press.
•Presses are rated on the basis of the force developed at
the end of the stroke.
•The blow press is more like squeeze than like the impact
of the hammer, therefore, dies can be less massive and die
life is longer than with a hammer.
•The total energy supplied during the stroke of a press is
given by

1
W
2
I 
2
o2
 f  …Eq 3
Mechanical press

Where I is moment of inertia of the flywheel

 is angular velocity, o-original, f-after deformation, rad.s-1
MECH MLRITM
Power HammerS
• Power hammers are mechanical forging hammers that use a non-muscular

power source to raise the hammer preparatory to striking, and accelerate it

onto the work being hammered. Also called "Open Die Power Forging

Hammers."

MECH MLRITM
Power hammer
•Power hammer provides greater capacity, in which
the ram is accelerated on the downstroke by
steam or air pressure in addition to gravity.
•Steam or air pressure is also used to raise the ram
on the upstroke.
•The total energy supplied to the blow in a
power drop hammer is given by

W  1 mv 2  pAH  (mg  pA)H …Eq 2

2

Wher m = mass
e v = velocity of ram at start
of deformation
g = acceleration of gravity
p = air or steam pressure
acting on ram cylinder on
downstroke
Power hammer A = area of ram cylinder
H = height of the ram drop

MECH MLRITM
Power hammer

MECH MLRITM
Types of Power Hammers

MECH MLRITM
Helve Hammer

MECH MLRITM
Trip Hammer

MECH MLRITM
Lever spring Hammer

MECH MLRITM
Pneumatic Hammer

MECH MLRITM
Steam Hammer / Air Hammer

MECH MLRITM
Typical values of velocity for
different forging equipment

Forging machine Velocity range, ms-1

Gravity drop hammer 3.6-4.8

Power drop hammer 3.0-9.0
HERF machine 6.0-24.0
Mechanical press 0.06-1.5
Hydraulic press 0.06-0.30

Remark: HERF – High Energy Rate Forging

MECH MLRITM
MATERIALS
• Carbon, micro alloyed and alloyed steels

• Stainless steel

• Aluminum alloys

• Copper based alloys

• Heat resistant alloys of iron, nickel, co

• Titanium alloys

• Magnesium alloys

MECH MLRITM
ADVANTAGES OF FORGING
METALS
• greater strength

• reduction in weight

• ability to withstand unpredictable loads

• min of machine finish required

• saving in material

• elimination of internal defects

MECH MLRITM
 Typical forging
defects
• Incomplete die filling .

• Die misalignment . Fluorescence penetrant

reveals Forging laps

• Forging laps .

•Incomplete forging penetration - should forge on the press.

•Microstructural differences resulting in pronounced property

variation.

•Hot shortness, due to high sulphur concentration in steel and

nickel.
MECH MLRITM
Typical forging
defects

•Pitted surface, due to oxide scales occurring at high

temperature stick
on the dies.

•Buckling, in upsetting forging. Subject to high

compressive stress.

•Surface cracking, due to temperature differential

between surface and centre, or excessive working
of the surface at too low temperature.

• Microcracking, due to residual stress.

Buckling
MECH MLRITM
Typical forging
defects

Cracking at the flash Cold shut or fold

Internal cracking

•Flash line crack, after trimming-occurs more often in thin workpieces. Therefore should
increase the thickness of the flash.

•Cold shut or fold , due to flash or fin from prior forging steps is forced into the
workpiece.

MECH MLRITM
•
 Effect of forging on microstructure

grain structure resulting from (a) forging, (b) machining and (c) casting.

•The formation of a grain structure in forged parts is elongated in the direction of the
deformation.
•The metal flow during forging provides fibrous microstructure (revealed by etching). This
structure gives better mechanical properties in the plane of maximum strain but (perhaps) lower
across the thickness.
•The workpiece often undergo recrystallisation, therefore, provide finer grains compared to
the cast dendritic structure resulting in improved mechanical properties.

MECH MLRITM
Calculation of forging loads

The total energy required for deformation

process; U total = Uideal + U friction + U redundant

Note: redundant work = work that does not contribute to

shape change of the workpiece

Efficiency of a given deformation process  is

Note: = 0.3-0.6 for extrusion
Uideal  = 0.75-0.95 for rolling
 = 0.10-0.20 for closed die forging

Utotal
The calculation for forging load can be divided into three cases according to friction:
• In the absence of friction
• Low friction condition (lower bound analysis or sliding condition)
• High friction condition (sticky friction condition)

MECH MLRITM
1) In the absence of friction

By assuming that there is no friction at die-workpiece interface, the forging

load is therefore the compressive force (P) acting on a round metal bar.

Then P o ….Eq. 4

A
Where P is the compressive force
o is the yield stress of the metal
A is the cross sectional area of the metal.

And the compressive stress (p) produced by this force P can be obtained from
Do

D 4Ph 4Ph 4 o Ah ….Eq. 5

p 2 
Do2 ho  Do2 ho
ho
h D
Do2 h  Note: from volume
D2 h constant

Where h is the instantaneous height of the metal bar during forging

ho is the original height of the metal bar
Do is the original diameter of the metal bar.

MECH MLRITM
 Do

D
ho
h

We have engineering strain in compression,

h h  ho ….Eq. 6
e 
ho ho

And true strain in compression,

h
dh h ho
  ln ….Eq. 7
  h h ln ho h
o

The relationship between e and 

is
  lne ….Eq. 8

1

MECH MLRITM
2) Low friction condition (Lower bound analysis)

By considering the equilibrium of forces acting on the workpiece at any

instant of deformation.
• For example, if we consider the effect of friction
on an upset forging operation in plane strain
condition (rigid-plastic behaviour, see Fig).
• To calculate the total forming load, we have to
determine the local stresses needed to deform
each element of a workpiece of height h and
width 2a.
• In plane strain condition, as the workpiece is
reduced in height, it expands laterally and all
deformation is confined in the x-y plane. This
lateral expansion causes frictional forces to act in
opposition to the movement.

•Assuming that there is no redundant work

and the material exhibits rigid-plastic
behaviour, and all stress on the body are
compressive.

MECH MLRITM
 •Consider the force acting on a vertical element of
unit length and width dx. The element is at some
distance x from the central ‘no-slip’ point, in this
case to the right.

• The vertical force acting on the element is

stress  area   y ….Eq. 9

dx
• If the coefficient of friction for the die-
workpiece interface is , the magnitude of the
friction force will be ydx. The frictional
force acts at both ends of the element so the
total horizontal force from the right is
2ydx.

•Acting on the left will be the force  x h and from the right the force
(x+dx)h. The horizontal compressive stress  x varies from a maximum at
the centre of the workpiece to zero at the edge and changes by d  x across
the element width dx.
MECH MLRITM
 Balancing the horizontal forces acting
on the element:

h x  d x  2 y dx  h x ….Eq. 10

Rearranging, we
have
2 y dx  hd x ….Eq.
11
and therefore

d x
2 ….Eq. 12
y   h dx

MECH MLRITM
 As the frictional force y is usually much smaller
than both  x and  y , which are principal stresses.
Thus we can use them in the yield criterion when
the slab will yield

 y  x  2  o  '
o
….Eq. 13

3
Where  ‘ o is the yield stress in plane strain.

Differentiation of the yield condition gives d  y = d  x ,

and substituting for d  x in Eq. 12 gives

d y
2 ….Eq. 14
y  dx
h

Integrating both sides of this differential equation

gives
2x ….Eq. 15 or y  C
 2x  ….Eq. 16
ln    h  C
y 
o  h 
exp
where C is a constant of
o
integration.
MECH MLRITM
THANK YOU
B
MECH MLRITM