THE SYNTAX OF COMPLEMENT

CLAUSES

Lecture 8
That-complement clauses
So far …
 Double object constructions
 get-passive
 Negative sentences
 That-complement clauses
...Gerund complement clauses
...Participial complement clauses
...Infinitival complement clauses
 Today

that-complement clauses
= main properties
= on that
Introduction

COMPLEMENT clauses

= a type of embedded sentence

 Introduction
embedded clauses = clauses which are constituents of a larger
sentence

(1) They believe that syntax is fun.

They know that they will pass the exam.
 Complement clauses are embedded
clauses which function as arguments of
predicates
 Introduction

(2) It was claimed that this was the only possible approach.
Everybody wondered if that was true.
She wondered whether she could trust them.
I would like for him to succeed.

Complementizer
= a functional clause-introducing
element
 Introduction

(3)
a. I know that he likes Romanian movies.
b. I am anxious for him to win the contest.

= C imposes selectional and interpretation restrictions on IP, it heads

the clause

 Embedded clauses are CPs

 Introduction

Complement clauses:

embedded clauses which function as arguments of

predicates and which are headed by a complementizer
(C)
Introduction
CP
3
C’
3
C IP
that 5
whether
for
0
Introduction
any embedded sentence = CP

 a lexical layer (VP )

 a functional layer (IP)
 a complementizer layer (CP)
Introduction
CP
3 C-layer
C’
3
C IP
3
I’ F-layer
3
I VP L-layer
 Introduction
that complement clauses, i.e. finite complement clauses headed by
the complementizer that:

(4) They think [that he lives in this house.]

overt subject (NOM) and [+ T + Agr]
 finite clause
Introduction


CP
3
Spec C’
3
C IP [+finite]
that
Introduction
(5) He said that she was sad.

3
V CP
said 3
C’
3
C IP
that 5
she was sad
Introduction
(6) He said she was sad.

3
V CP
said 3
C’
3
C IP
0 5
she was sad
Task

They knew that she had left.

They believed that syntax was fun.
She claimed that she had not mentioned it.
 So far….
• That- complement clauses are subordinate clauses which function as
arguments of predicates and which are headed by the complementizer that
:
CP
3
C’
3
C IP
that 5
[ + finite]
 Introduction

The verbs which select a that-complement clause accept

an abstract complement (its referent = a proposition )

(7) I claim [that he is the best].

(8) It seems to me [that he will win today].
Introduction

PROPOSITION

= the meaning of a sentence ( = constant)

= it has a truth value, i.e. it can be true/false in a particular
context
 On the role of that

(9) I believe [that he is crazy.]

(10) I believe this story.

= the clause occupies the position of a DP

CPs vs. DPs

That complement clauses:

= similar to DPs
 arguments
 substitutes: IT, THIS, THAT
CPs vs. DPs

(11) I am happy that he got the grant.

(12) *I am happy his results.
(13) I am happy about his results.

(14) *I am happy about that he got the grant.

 CPs are not licit in case-marked positions
CPs vs. DPs

DPs always require case

CPs do not require Case

 The distribution of DPs is determined by the Case

Filter
 The distribution of CPs is not determined by the
Case Filter
CPs vs. DPs

(15) I insisted *on that he should study abroad.

 CPs cannot be the complement of prepositions

 CPs vs. DPs

(16) I consider him to be intelligent.

= structural Accusative case

(17) *I consider [that he left early] a great success.

 not in the structural Accusative case …
Back in time…

Structural case:
• associated with a particular structural position

• in a government position ( in English: also adjacency)

• no particular theta-role
CPs vs. DPs
(18) [That he was so upset] surprised
everybody.

Nominative case position?

Spec IP?
 CPs vs. DPs
(19)
a. John has left.
b. Has John left ? < S A I

(20) [that he was upset] had surprised everybody

(21) *Had [that he was upset] surprised everybody?
 The preverbal CP is not in the canonical subject
position
 CPs vs. DPs

DPs= prototypical SUBJECTs

(22) Their failure does not worry her.

(23) Their project was the best.

That-clauses can be SUBJECTs

(24) That they haven’t replied does not worry her.

 DPs vs CPs
BUT

That complement clauses which are subjects and are placed in S-

initial position occupy a TOPIC position ( higher than the
canonical subject position).
On that
That

(1)
a. Ibelieve [that he is crazy.]
b. I believe [_ he is crazy.]

apparently, that can be optionally omitted

Q1: are the null C clauses CPs or IPs?

Q2: is that omission really optional?
Starting point

(2)
a. Ibelieve [that he is crazy.]
b. I believe [_ he is crazy.]

apparently, that can be optionally omitted

Q1: are the null C clauses CPs or IPs?

Q2: is that omission really optional?
 On the role of that

Q1
(3) I hope [_ you can follow me] and [that you will manage to
solve the problem.]

Coordination provides evidence that null C clauses are CPs

On the role of that

Q1: are the null C clauses CPs or IPs? 

Q2: is that omission really optional?

THAT deletion

(4)
a. I know that you like syntax.
b. I know you like syntax.

Is that deletion really optional? Has it always been like

that?
 THAT deletion

Old English (5th c – 11th c.): the use of that was almost
categorical

Late Middle English (11th c. – 15th c.): more variation

(5) Thou knowest wel _ thou art my sworen brother.
(1387, Chaucer, Canterbury
Tales)
 THAT deletion
Early Modern English (16th c. – 17th c.): omission of that is common:

(6) Now I remember, my Lord, _ you gave good words the other day.
(1604, Shakespeare, Timon of Athens)

(7) Fond man, remember that thou hast a wife.

(1590, Shakespeare, King Henry VI)
THAT deletion

Jespersen (1954) :
that deletion < “momentary fancy”
THAT deletion

(8)
a. *He is a linguist is interesting.
b. That he is a linguist is interesting.

 Impossible in pre-V position

THAT deletion

(9)
a. That John left, nobody noticed.
b. *John left, nobody noticed.

 Impossible with topicalized clauses

 THAT deletion

(11) I believe (that) this is easy.

that deletion is allowed only in complement position

THAT deletion

(12)
a. I heard Bill’s claim that the sun is a star.
b. *I heard Bill’s claim the sun is a star.

 Impossible under derived nominals

 THAT deletion
(13)
I hope (that) you will read this book.
I hope that this book you will read.
?*I hope this book you will read.

 That: usually not omitted if topicalization to sentence-initial

position has applied
MORE ON THAT-deletion

(14) Who do you think (that) John helped ti ?

(15) Whoi do you think (*that) ti helped John?

 MORE ON THAT-deletion
(16) a. She thinks (that) you are the leader.
b. *Who does she think that t is the leader?
c. Who does she think t is the leader?

 IF the that compl. clause: embedded within a construction in

such a way that its subject has been moved leaving a trace
behind: that must be excluded.
 MORE ON THAT-deletion

(17) (i) Max is the one she thinks [ _ is the leader.]

(ii) *Max is the one she thinks [that t is the leader.]

 that-trace filter: an overt complementizer cannot be followed by a trace

MORE ON THAT-deletion

(18) Vasilică este omul care cred că va ajunge firmist.

Q: that-trace filter?
 Task: Identify the ungrammatical Ss:

(i) I believe that you will get the job.

(ii)Who do you believe that will get the job?
(iii) John is the one I believe that will get the job.
(iv) John is the one I believe will get the job.
 MORE ON THAT-deletion

(19) I believe (that) you will get the job.

(20) *Who do you believe that will get the job?

(21) *John is the one I believe that will get the job.

(22) John is the one I believe will get the job.

 THAT deletion

(23) This motion, that John be fired, was defeated.

(24) This motion, that the subscription be increased by 50%, was
quickly defeated.

appositives  obligatory
THAT-deletion
So far:

That-omission is constrained by structural factors

THAT deletion
ALSO: “tendencies”

(25) The fact that he was bright and THAT he was known
to be clever helped him out.

 That tends to be retained under coordination

 THAT deletion
However:
(26) The newspaper reported THAT a new mayor was elected and there was a
riot.
= + causal interpretation
(27) The newspaper reported THAT a new mayor was elected and THAT there
was a riot.
= + non-causal interpretation

 the interpretation of a causal interpretation between the two embedded

clauses can be affected by the presence of that
 Task

a. During the class observation, the professor noted that the student teacher did
not look confident and the students were poorly behaved.

b. During the class observation, the professor noted that the student teacher did
not look confident and that the students were poorly behaved.
 Task

a. At the basketball game, the referee observed that a fan screamed from the
bleachers and that the star player missed his free throw.

b. At the basketball game, the referee observed that a fan screamed from the
bleachers and the star player missed his free throw.
THAT deletion

(28) I was told that the students had all left.

 If the matrix contains a passive: that tends to be

retained
THAT deletion
(29) They testified under oath that they would keep it a secret.
(30) Mary said in a loud voice that she would not eat the cookies.
(31) She knew very well that he was intelligent.

 If an AdvP, PP, etc. intervenes between the V and the clause: that
tends to be retained.
 THAT deletion
(29) The president said in his press conference yesterday he was going to
play golf every week.

= unacceptable for some speakers but grammatical for others

THAT deletion

HOWEVER: an obvious preference for adjacency

“any elements capable of delaying the processing of the object clause

and thus of the overall sentence structure favour the use of an explicit
signal of subordination”.
 THAT deletion
(30) It distresses me that he is trying to lay the blame on us.
Extraposed clause with a transitive V in the matrix = that retention is
preferred

BUT
(31) It’s a good job we left early.
(32) It seems we made a mistake.
 that deletion is favoured
 THAT deletion
co-referential subjects in matrix clause and complement clause/
a personal pronoun in complement clause (vs lexical DP)

(33)
I think I’m going to be sick.
I think I’ll make a shopping list today.
You said you didn’t.
 that deletion is favoured
 THAT deletion

Tendencies:

(i) in colloquial lg./ informal register: that deletion is the norm

(ii) in written, formal lg./academic prose (5%!): that retention is the
norm

 That deletion is register-bound

THAT deletion

Bolinger (1972)/ Hornby

Frequency of usage /formal (hypothesize, assert, affirm,

decide, intent)
 THAT deletion

(34)
a. John said (that) Mary had already left.
b. John mentioned *(that) Mary had left.

 Not all the verbs which select a that-complement clause allow

that deletion
There is a relationship between the semantics of the embedding
predicate and the possibility of that deletion (in complement
position)
 THAT deletion
Factivity
 factive predicates ban that-omission (Cornilescu 2003:146)

(35)
a. They accepted *(that) the analysis was correct.
b. The president pointed out *(that) he could not nominate such a prime-
minister.
c. She discovered *(that) she had made a mistake.
 THAT deletion
[+/- factive]: V presupposes/does not presuppose the truth of the proposition
expressed by its clausal complement
The complement is a fact (rather than merely a proposition)
(36) I don’t regret that I told you about it.
THAT deletion

(37)
? John forgot she was at home.
? John noticed she was at home.
? John admits he was wrong.

with some verbs the requirement is less strong

THAT deletion

(38)
I admit I was wrong. (Macmillan)
He forgot it was her birthday. (Macmillan)
He noticed the light was on. (Hornby)
He remembered it was her birthday. (Macmillan)

 Factive verbs generally ban that deletion.

 THAT deletion
• confirm = to prove that something is true +/- that
confirm = to say that something is true because you know about it : + that

(39) The Dean confirmed that the 45 law students had been expelled.
(40) You should take a test to confirm (that) you are Covid negative.
THAT deletion
[+ factive] vs. [+propositional]

(41) They believe that syntax is fun.

(42) She thought that the earth was flat.

The complement is a proposition.

 propositional verbs allow that-omission
 THAT deletion
Speech act verbs: say, tell, assert

Verbs of mental perception/verbs of propositional attitude:

believe, think, claim, consider, estimate, imagine, propose,
reckon, suppose, suspect…
THAT deletion

(43)
They said (that) everybody would help.
She thought (that) she was the best.
They claim (that) John is guilty.

More on that omission … See Seminar 4!

So far...
Q: Is that deletion/omission optional?
A: NO

That omission is constrained by:

(i) Structural factors
(ii) Processing complexity
(iii) Register
(iv) Frequency
(v) Lexical factors