 What is personality?

 How do personalities differ?

 What are value and attitude differences
among individuals, and why are they
important?
 What are individual differences and how are
they related to workforce diversity?
A common sense definition is: “ Personality presents
distinctive set of characteristics that tend to remain
the same across similar situation and are relatively
stable over time”
Three Key themes
Uniqueness:
Each person is a collection of unique characteristics that results in
behavior that is unique to that individual and differentiate
one person from another.

Situational Consistency
Individual characteristics will be similar in different situations only if
(a) the situations are similar or
(b) the characteristics have produced similar outcomes
in these situations in the past
Stability:
Considerable evidence suggest it is stable and enduring over time.
The overall profile or combination of characteristics that capture the unique
nature of a person as that person reacts and interacts with others.
 Heredity
◦ Study of identical twins
◦ Assessments of newborns
◦ Genes
 Environment
◦ Social exposures
◦ Physiological forces
◦ Socioeconomic factors
• Heredity and environment.

◦ Heredity sets the limits on the development of personality

characteristics.

◦ Environment determines development within these limits. 

◦ About a 50-50 heredity-environment split.

◦ Cultural values and norms play a substantial role in the development

of personality.

◦ Social factors include family life, religion, and many kinds of formal
and informal groups.

◦ Situational factors reflect the opportunities or constraints imposed by

the operational context.
 Chris Argyris, Daniel Levinson and Grail Sheehy systematically examine the ways
personality develops across time

 Chris Argyris notes that people develop along a continuum of dimensions from
immaturity to maturity

 Argyris believes that many organizations treat mature adults as if they were still
immature and this creates many problems in terms of bringing out the best in
employees

 Levinson and Sheehy maintains that an individuals personality unfolds in a series

of stages across times
EXHIBIT 4-2

4–
9
 Extraversion Conscientiousness

Personality

Openness to
Agreeableness
experience

Emotional stability

Adapted from: Exhibit 5.1 The Big Five Personality Traits

 Extraversion: extravert/ introvert

- The degree to which a person is outgoing and drives energy from

being around other people
- In more specific terms it the degree to which a person :

1. Enjoys being around other people

2. Is warm to others
3. Speaks up in group settings
4. Maintains a vigorous pace
5. Like excitement and cheerful
- Research has shown that extraverts tend to have modest but
measurable performance advantage over introverts in occupation
requiring high level of interaction with other people

- Specific occupations where extraverts have been found to perform

particularly well include sales and management

- Introverts tend to do particularly well in occupations such as

engineering, accounting, and information technology where more
solitary work is required

- For any occupation where teams are emphasized extraverts may

have slight edge, as teams require face-to-face-interaction, group
decision making, and navigation of interpersonal dynamics

- A team with very high percentage of extraverts as members may

function poorly, more interested in talking than listening
2. Conscientiousness: Focused / Flexible

 The degree to which an individual focuses on goals and works

towards them

 In specific terms it is the degree to which a person:

1. Feels capable
2. Is organized
3. Is reliable
4. Possesses a drive for success
5. Focuses on completing the task
6. Thinks before acting

 Research has shown that individuals scoring high on

conscientiousness have performance edge in most occupations and
tend to perform well on teams
 Research has shown that conscientiousness has a stronger positive
effect on job performance when a person also scores high on
agreeableness
 3. Agreeableness: Adapter / Challenger

 The degree to which an individual is easy going and tolerant

 Specifically it is the degree to which a person:

1. Believes in the honesty of others

2. Is straightforward
3. Is willing to help others
4. Tends to yield under conflict
5. Is sensitive to the feeling of others
 Research has not shown consistent pattern of job outcomes on
individuals scoring high or low on agreeableness

 Being agreeable and disagreeable can be valuable at different times

in the same job

 Agreeable individuals seems to be consistently effective in team

work

 They are positive for interpersonal dynamics, as they are sensitive to

the feelings of others and try to ensure the participation and success
of all team members

 Having a very high percentage of very agreeable team members may

be associated with too little debate on important issues

 When teams must make important decisions and solve non-routine

problems, having some members with lower scores on
agreeableness may be an advantage
4. Emotional Stability: Stable/ Unstable
 The degree to which an individual easily handles stressful situations and
heavy demands

 Specific traits include:

1. Is relaxed
2. Is slow to feel anger
3. Rarely becomes discouraged
4. Rarely becomes embarrassed
5. Resists unhealthy urges associated with addictions
6. Handles crisis well

 Research has shown that emotionally stable individuals tend to have an edge
in task performance across a large number of occupations

 Emotionally stable individuals have modest advantage as team members

 Emotional stability is positively linked to job satisfaction, independent of

specific conditions of the job situation
5. Openness to Experience: Explorer/Preserver,
 The degree to which a person seeks new experiences and thinks
creatively

 More specifically openness is the degree to which a person:

1. Has vivid imagination

2. Has appreciation for art and beauty
3. Values and respects emotions in himself and others
4. Prefers variety to routine
5. Has broad intellectual curiosity
6. Is open to reexamine closely held values
 Research has shown that individuals scoring both high and low on
openness can perform well in variety of occupations and perform
well on teams

 Those who score high on this dimension are more effective at

particular tasks calling for vision and creativity, such as creative
aspects of advertising, the creative aspects of marketing and many
aspects of arts

 Individuals with low openness score may be more effective in jobs

calling for strong adherence to rules such as piloting airplanes, and
accounting
Extravert Introvert
Talkative Reserved
Extraversion Quiet
Sociable

Adapter Challenger
Trusting Co- Agreeableness Rude, cold
operative soft- Uncaring
hearted
Flexible sloppy,
Focused dependable, Conscientiousness inefficient, careless
efficient, organized

Unstable
Stable Self-
Emotional stability Anxious, angry
confident,
depressed
relaxed, secure
Preserver,
Explorer Openness to Experience Unimaginative,
Imaginative,
conventional, habit
curious, broad
bound
minded
E = extraversion, C = Conscientiousness,
A = Agreeableness, ES = Emotional stability
O = Openness to experience
A “++” indicates the higher scores on a trait appear to have a very
significant effect on the listed competency
A “-” that a lower level of a trait appear to promote the competency
Parentheses are used in some cases where some aspects of a trait are
associated with the listed competency but the overall trait is not
(see slides 22 and 23)
 Exhibit 5-2 The Big Five and High-Involvement Management
Competencies Description Big Five Traits*
For Managers
Delegating to Patience in providing information E+ C+ A- ES+ O+
others and support when empowering
others, but also the ability to
confront individuals when there is a
Developing others problem
Interest in sharing information, E+ (C+) A++ ES+ (O+)
ability to coach and train, and
interest in helping others plan
careersto bring out the best in other
Motivating others Ability E++ C+ (A+) ES+
people, desire to recognize
contributions of others, and in
general an interest in others

Adapted from Exhibit 6-3: Factors Affecting Goal Commitment

 Exhibit 5-2 The Big Five and High-Involvement Management
Competencies Description Big Five Traits*
For Associates
Decision-making Careful consideration of important E+ C++ A- ES+ O+
skills inputs, little putting off of decisions,
and no tendency to change mind
repeatedly
Self-development Use of all available resources for E+ C++ A+ ES+ (O-)
improvement, interest in feedback,
and lack of defensiveness
Self-management Little procrastination, effective time E+ C+ (A-)
management, and a focus on targets
Teamwork Willingness to subordinate personal E+ C+ A++ ES+ O+
interests for the team, ability to
follow or lead depending on the
needs of the team, and commitment
to building team spirit
Adapted from Exhibit 6-3: Factors Affecting Goal Commitment
Personality Types
• Extroverted or Introverted (E or I)
• Sensing or Intuitive (S or N)
• Thinking or Feeling (T or F)
• Perceiving or Judging (P or J)

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4–
24
 Myers Briggs Type Indicators
Based on the personality theory of psychologist Carl Jung (1920)

Isabel Myers and her mother Katherine Briggs revived the idea of temperaments
and devised Meyers and Briggs Type Indicator, a tool for identifying sixteen
different patterns of behavior.
The type indicators as identified by Jung were:

Extraversion( E), Introversion (I); Sensation (S) Intuition (N); Thinking(T) Feeling (F);
Perceiving (P), and judging (J).

1. A person is neither one or the other of these four pairs. Each person has some
degree of both the opposing pairs

2. A person strengthens or weakens its preference with the passage of time

3. The question whether these preferences are “ inborn” or developed latter

remains unsettled. The function becomes more stronger through use
 Extraversion Vs. Introversion(I)

Are complimentary Attitudes towards the world

Extraverts Introverts

Feels pulled outward by Feels pushed inward by external claims and

external claims and conditions intrusions

Energized by other people and Energized by inner resources and internal

external experiences experiences

Acts and then (may be) reflects Reflects then (may be ) act

Is often friendly, talkative, Is often reserved, quite and hard to know

easy to know
Express motions Bottles up emotions

Needs relationships Needs Privacy

Gives breadth to life Gives depth to life

When working, need short

Introverts do enjoy interacting with others but it
brain breaks to converse
drains their energy
with someone

E’s may be seen shallow to I’s I’s may seen withdrawn to E’s

Needs extraversion for balance

Needs Introversion for balance
 Sensation Vs Intuition

Are ways of taking information. The sensing function takes information by way of
five senses, the intuition function takes information by sixth sense

Intuition ( N)
Sensing (S)
Like things that are definite, Like opportunities for being inventive
and measurable

Starts at the beginning, takes Jumps every where, leaps over steps
a step at a time

Reads instruction, notices Skips directions, follows hunches

details
Looks at specific parts and Looks at patterns and relationships
pieces
Lives in present, enjoy every Lives towards the future anticipating what
thing that is there might be

Favors handling practical Prefers imagining possibilities

matters

Likes set procedures, Likes change and variety

established routines

When interviewing someone for Not much interested in what applicant has
job, would want to know type of done but what he could for the organization
experience applicant has had

The S’s see N as flighty, impractical

and unrealistic
Sensation parent become concerned The intuitive parent would become
if the child spends time in fantasy/ worried if the child does not spend
day dreaming time in fanaticizing

The N’s see S as plodding, too slow to The S’s see N as flighty, impractical and
see future possibilities unrealistic
 Thinking Vs. Feeling

Are ways of making decisions. The thinking function decides on the basis of logic and objective
consideration. The Feeling decides on the basis of personal subjective values.

Thinking (T) Feeling (F)

Decides with the head Decides with the heart

Goes by Logic Goes by personal conviction

Concerned for truth and justice Concerned for relationships, harmony

Sees as onlooker, from outside a situation Sees things as a participant, from within

Takes a long view Takes an immediate and personal view

•Spontaneously find flaws, criticizes •Spontaneously appreciate

•Good at understanding plans •Good at understanding people

•When T becomes emotional, body •Tends to make their emotions more visible. Their
reactions are not noticed by others . The T hands become moist, color flushes or drains from
person gets embarrassed by a show of his face, body trembles, heart beat faster, others
intense emotions become affected by this

•Feelersmay consider thinkers as heartless, •Thinkers may consider Feelers as too soft
have ice in their veins hearted,illogical fuzzy thinkers.
 Judging Vs Perceiving

Are complimentary life style. Judging life style is decisive, planned and orderly. A perceptive life
style is flexible, adaptable and spontaneous
Judging (J) Perception (P)
Enjoys being decisive
Enjoys being curious, discovering surprises
Likes clear limits and categories

Likes freedom to explore without limits

Feels comfortable in establishing closure Feels comfortable maintaining openness

Prefers organized life style Prefers flexible lifestyle

Likes definite order and structure Likes going with flow

Likes to have life under control Prefers to experience life as it happens

Handles deadlines, plans in advance

Meets deadlines by last minute rush

When setting deadlines for others J is likely

P is to become anxious and react by moving real
to communicate actual deadlines and
dead lines ahead to artificial deadlines
would expect others to meet them

P’s may criticize J’s as pressured and

J’s may see P’s as indecisive, procrastinating,
hurried, making hasty decisions, task
aimless, restive, critical and blocking decisions
oriented, and rigid
 Locus of control
 Machiavellianism
 Self-esteem
 Self-monitoring
 Propensity for risk taking
 Type A personality

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© 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights 4–
reserved. 36
 Conditions Favoring High Machs
• Direct interaction
• Minimal rules and regulations
• Distracting emotions

High Machs manipulate more, win more, are persuaded less and persuade others more
The successful outcomes of high Machs behavior depends upon:

1. face to face interaction with other persons not by indirect means

2. When situation has minimum number of rules and regulations
3. Where emotional involvement with details are irrelevant to winning

 e
◦ Degree to which people attempt to present the image they think
others want to see in the given situation

◦ High-self monitors want to be seen as others want them to be

◦ Low self monitors want to be seen as themselves, not as others

want them to be
 High Risk-taking Managers
◦ Make quicker decisions.
◦ Use less information to make decisions.
◦ Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial organizations.
 Low Risk-taking Managers
◦ Are slower to make decisions.
◦ Require more information before making decisions.
◦ Exist in larger organizations with stable environments.
 Risk Propensity
◦ Aligning managers’ risk-taking propensity to job requirements
should be beneficial to organizations.

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© 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights 4–
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 Personality Types
• Realistic
• Investigative
• Social
• Conventional
• Enterprising
• Artistic

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EXHIBIT 4-3

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EXHIBIT 4-4

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 The “myth of rationality”
◦ Organizations are not emotion-free.
 Emotions of any kind are disruptive to
organizations.
◦ Original OB focus was solely on the effects of
strong negative emotions that interfered with
individual and organizational efficiency.

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 AFFECT
A broad range of emotions that people
experience.

Emotions Moods
Intense feelings that are Feelings that tend to be
directed at someone or less intense than emotions
something. and that lack a contextual
stimulus.

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© 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights 4–
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 Variety of emotions
◦ Positive
◦ Negative
 Intensity of emotions
◦ Personality
◦ Job Requirements
 Frequency and duration of emotions
◦ How often emotions are exhibited.
◦ How long emotions are displayed.

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4–50 reserved.
 EXHIBIT 4-5

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reserved. 51
 The closer any two emotions are to each other on
the continuum, the more likely people are to
confuse them.

EXHIBIT 4-6

4–52
 Women
◦ Can show greater emotional expression.
◦ Experience emotions more intensely.
◦ Display emotions more frequently.
◦ Are more comfortable in expressing emotions.
◦ Are better at reading others’ emotions.
 Men
◦ Believe that displaying emotions is inconsistent with the
male image.
◦ Are innately less able to read and to identify with others’
emotions.
◦ Have less need to seek social approval by showing positive
emotions.

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Organizational Cultural
Influences Influences

Individual
Emotions

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reserved. 54
 Ability and Selection
◦ Emotions affect employee effectiveness.
 Decision Making
◦ Emotions are an important part of the decision-
making process in organizations.
 Motivation
◦ Emotional commitment to work and high
motivation are strongly linked.
 Leadership
◦ Emotions are important to acceptance of messages
from organizational leaders.

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4–55 reserved.
 Interpersonal Conflict
◦ Conflict in the workplace and individual emotions
are strongly intertwined.
 Deviant Workplace Behaviors
◦ Negative emotions can lead to employee deviance in
the form of actions that violate established norms
and threaten the organization and its members.
 Productivity failures
 Property theft and destruction
 Political actions
 Personal aggression

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 Emotional Intelligence (EI)
◦ Self-awareness
◦ Self-management
◦ Self-motivation
◦ Empathy
◦ Social skills
 Research Findings
◦ High EI scores, not high
IQ scores, characterize
high performers.

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