Pertemuan 2

+
William Stallings
Computer Organization
and Architecture,10th Edition
Presented by : Ajeng Savitri P, M.Kom © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken,

NJ. All rights reserved.
+
Chapter 1
Basic Concepts and Computer
Evolution
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
+
2nd Meeting
Computer Evolution  Learn the Brief history of computers
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All

rights reserved.
+
History of Computers
Generation Zero : Mechanical
Calculating Machines
 Prior to the 1500s, a typical European businessperson used an abacus for
calculations and recorded the result of his ciphering in Roman numerals.
 After the decimal numbering system finally replaced Roman numerals, a

number of people invented devices to make decimal calculations even faster
and more accurate.

+
Calculating Clock
 Wilhelm Schickard (1592–1635), invented the first mechanical calculator, the

Calculating Clock
 Able to add and subtract numbers

containing as many as six digits

+
Calculating Machine
 Blaise Pascal (1623 – 1662), a

French scientist, invented the
first calculating machine,
Pascaline.
 Machines are made only capable

of doing addition and subtraction
could do addition with carry and
subtraction.

+
Calculating Machine
 Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz

(1646 – 1716), a German
mathematician, invented the pocket
calculator with four functions.

+
Pre Generation
 Charles Babbage (1792 – 1871),

Cambridge University professor of
mathematics, who first put forward the
idea of the computer.
 1823: Designing a Difference Engine

capable of calculating mathematical
tables.
 1833: Designs the Analytic Engine

which is considered an early concept
of a computer that can be used for
various purposes.

+
First Programmer
 Ada Augusta Lovelace (1815 – 1852),

an English mathematician, is
immortalized as the name of the
modern programming language Ada.
 Wrote the first algorithm for

calculating Bernoulli numbers on the
Analytical Engine designed by Charles
Babbage

+
Von Neumann Machines
 An example of computer architecture and
organization. Used by modern computers as a
reference.
 Von Neumann machines is a computer category

based on von Neumann architecture (stored-
program concept).
 Invented by John von Neumann
 Data and programs can be stored in the same

space (memory).
 Thus, the machines themselves can alter either

their programs or their internal data.

+
Von Neumann Architecture
 A main memory, which stores

both data and instructions.
 An arithmetic and logic unit

(ALU) capable of operating on
binary data.
 A control unit, which interprets

the instructions in memory and
causes them to be executed.
 Input and output (I/O) equipment

operated by the control unit.

+
First Generation: Vacuum Tubes
 Vacuum tubes were used for digital logic elements and
memory
 IAS computer
 Fundamental design approach was the stored program concept
 Attributed to the mathematician John von Neumann
 First publication of the idea was in 1945 for the EDVAC
 Design began at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies
 Completed in 1952
 Prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers

+
First Generation Characteristic
 Vacuum tube
 Programmed by machine language
 Using stored program concept
 Using magnetic core storage technology
 Huge
 High temperature

+ Registers
Memory buffer register • Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O unit
(MBR) • Or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit
Memory address register • Specifies the address in memory of the word to be written from or read
(MAR) into the MBR
Instruction register (IR) • Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed
Instruction buffer register • Employed to temporarily hold the right-hand instruction from a word in
(IBR) memory
• Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be fetched from

Program counter (PC) memory
Accumulator (AC) and • Employed to temporarily hold operands and results of ALU operations
multiplier quotient (MQ)

Table 1.1
The IAS
Instruction Set
(Table can be found on page 17 in the textbook.)

+
ENIAC - Background
 Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer
 Dr. J. Presper Eckert and Dr. John W. Mauchly
 University of Pennsylvania
 Trajectory tables for weapons
 Started 1943
 Finished 1946
 Too late for the war effort
 Used until 1955

+
Second Generation: Transistors
 Transistor: a solid-state device made from silicon as a semiconductor that
functions as an amplifier, switch, signal modulator, etc.
 Was invented at Bell Labs in 1947 by William Shockley, John Bardeen,

and Walter Brattain in 1947
 It was not until the late 1950’s

that fully transistorized
computers were commercially
available

+
Second Generation Characteristic
 Transistor
 FOTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL, etc.
 Larger main memory capacity
 Using secondary memory
 For business and engineering application
 Smaller
 Cheaper
 Dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube

+
Second Generation Computers
 Introduced:
 More complex arithmetic and logic units and control units
 The use of high-level programming languages
 Provision of system software that provided the ability to:
 Load programs
 Move data to peripherals
 Libraries perform common
computations

Third Generation: Integrated Circuits
 1958 – the invention of the integrated circuit by Jack
S. Kilby
 Discrete component
 Single, self-contained transistor
 Manufactured separately, packaged in their own
containers, and soldered or wired together onto masonite-
like circuit boards
 Manufacturing process was expensive and cumbersome
 The two most important members of the third

generation were the IBM System/360 and the DEC
PDP-8

+
Third Generation Characteristic
 IC (Integrated Circuit)
 OS depends on needs
 Output as terminal screen
 Using magnetic disk as secondary memory
 Multiprocessing and multiprogramming
 Network feature
 Larger memory

+
Integrated  A computer consists of gates,
memory cells, and interconnections
Circuits among these elements
 The gates and memory cells are

 Data storage – provided by memory constructed of simple digital
cells electronic components
 Data processing – provided by gates

 Exploits the fact that such
components as transistors, resistors,
 Data movement – the paths among and conductors can be fabricated
components are used to move data from a semiconductor such as
from memory to memory and from silicon
memory through gates to memory
 Many transistors can be produced at
 Control – the paths among the same time on a single wafer of
components can carry control signals silicon
 Transistors can be connected with a

processor metallization to form
circuits

+
Table 1.2
Computer Generations


Moore’s Law
1965; Gordon Moore – co-founder of Intel
Observed number of transistors that could be put

on a single chip was doubling every year
Consequences of Moore’s law:

The pace slowed to a
doubling every 18
months in the 1970’s
but has sustained that The cost of
The electrical Computer becomes
computer logic Reduction in
rate ever since and memory
path length is smaller and is
power and Fewer interchip
shortened, more convenient to
circuitry has use in a variety of cooling connections
increasing
fallen at a environments requirements
operating speed
dramatic rate

+
IBM System/360
 Announced in 1964
 Product line was incompatible with older IBM machines
 Was the success of the decade and cemented IBM as the

overwhelmingly dominant computer vendor
 The architecture remains to this day the architecture of IBM’s

mainframe computers
 Was the industry’s first planned family of computers

 Models were compatible in the sense that a program written for one model
should be capable of being executed by another model in the series

+ Family Characteristics
Similar or identical Similar or identical

instruction set operating system
Increasing number
Increasing speed
of I/O ports
Increasing memory
Increasing cost
size

+ LSI
Large
Scale
Later Integration
Generations
VLSI
Very Large
Scale
Integration
ULSI
Semiconductor Memory Ultra Large
Microprocessors Scale
Integration

Semiconductor Memory
In 1970 Fairchild produced the first relatively capacious semiconductor memory

Chip was about the size of Could hold 256 bits of
Non-destructive Much faster than core
a single core memory
In 1974 the price per bit of semiconductor memory dropped below the price per bit of core
There has been a continuing and rapid decline in memory
Developments in memory and processor technologies
memory cost accompanied by a corresponding increase
changed the nature of computers in less than a decade
in physical memory density
Since 1970 semiconductor memory has been through 13 generations
Each generation has provided four times the storage density of the previous generation, accompanied by declining
cost per bit and declining access time

+
Microprocessors
 The density of elements on processor chips continued to rise
 More and more elements were placed on each chip so that fewer and fewer
chips were needed to construct a single computer processor
 1971 Intel developed 4004

 First chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a single chip
 Birth of microprocessor

 First 8-bit microprocessor

 First general purpose microprocessor
 Faster, has a richer instruction set, has a large addressing capability

Evolution of Intel Microprocessors
(a) 1970s Processors

(b) 1980s Processors

(c) 1990s Processors

(d) Recent Processors

+ Summary
Computer Evolution
2 Meeting
nd
 Brief history of computers

 The First Generation: Vacuum
tubes
 The Second Generation:
Transistors
 The Third Generation:
Integrated Circuits
 Later generations

+ Stallings, William. Computer organization and

architecture: designing for performance – 11th
ed. Pearson Education India, 2022.
 Null, Linda, and Julia Lobur. Essentials of

Computer Organization and Architecture – 4th
edition. Jones & Bartlett Publishers, 2015.
 Govindarajalu, B. Computer Architecture and

Organization: Design Principles and
Applications 2nd Edition. Tata McGraw-Hill
References Education, 2010.
 Patterson, David A., and John L. Hennessy.

Computer Organization and Design, The
Hardware/Software Interface – 6th edition.
Morgan Kaufmann, 2021.
 Wang, Shuangbao Paul. Computer Architecture

and Organization: Fundamentals and
Architecture Security. Springer Nature, 2021.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All

rights reserved.

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Presented by : Ajeng Savitri P, M.Kom © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken,

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All

 After the decimal numbering system finally replaced Roman numerals, a

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Wilhelm Schickard (1592–1635), invented the first mechanical calculator, the

 Able to add and subtract numbers

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Blaise Pascal (1623 – 1662), a

 Machines are made only capable

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Charles Babbage (1792 – 1871),

 1823: Designing a Difference Engine

 1833: Designs the Analytic Engine

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Ada Augusta Lovelace (1815 – 1852),

 Wrote the first algorithm for

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Von Neumann machines is a computer category

 Invented by John von Neumann

 Data and programs can be stored in the same

 Thus, the machines themselves can alter either

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 A main memory, which stores

 An arithmetic and logic unit

 A control unit, which interprets

 Input and output (I/O) equipment

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Programmed by machine language

 Using stored program concept

 Using magnetic core storage technology

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

• Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be fetched from

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

(Table can be found on page 17 in the textbook.)

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer

 Dr. J. Presper Eckert and Dr. John W. Mauchly

 Trajectory tables for weapons

 Used until 1955

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Was invented at Bell Labs in 1947 by William Shockley, John Bardeen,

 It was not until the late 1950’s

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 FOTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL, etc.

 Larger main memory capacity

 Using secondary memory

 For business and engineering application

 Dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 The two most important members of the third

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Output as terminal screen

 Using magnetic disk as secondary memory

 Multiprocessing and multiprogramming

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 The gates and memory cells are

 Data processing – provided by gates

 Transistors can be connected with a