Hazard:

Its Impact,
Identification and
Risk Assessment
• Upon completion of this module, you are expected to:

1. explain the impacts of various hazards on

different exposed elements;
2. classify hazard impacts;
3. perform hazard identification and risk
assessment; and
4. recognize the value of being disaster-resilient.
• A hazard is defined is simply a condition or a set of
circumstances that present a potential for harm. So far, you
also have learned that hazards are divided into two broad
categories:
• health hazard (can cause occupational
• illnesses) and
• safety hazard (can cause physical harm or injuries).
 A hazard can also be classified into six types
which are:
• Biological,
• Chemical,
• Physical,
• Safety,
• Ergonomic and
• Psycho-social.
Risk - refers to the potential for loss, damage or destruction a
hazard can cause.

Vulnerability - refers to the characteristics of a community or

system that make it susceptible to the possible damaging effects
of a hazard.

For example, a doctor who is handling a patient infected with a virus

(hazard) has a high chance of getting infected (risk) if she has poor
immune system and does not wear personal protective equipment
(vulnerability).
 Different Impacts of Hazards
• A hazard can bring about many impacts which can
come in different types. Facilities and infrastructures
are commonly the target of natural hazards.
Specifically, these impacts can trigger accidents and
the release of toxic substances, fires and
explosions, potentially resulting in health effects,
environmental pollution and economic losses.
• One way to classify hazard impacts is by means of general impact
themes namely:
• • Danger to life which includes physical and psychological harm
• and diseases
• • Denial of access like energy, water, communication and
• transport access
• • Damage to the physical environment like buildings and land
 Specific types of hazard impacts.
• 1. Physical impact
• - Physical injuries (bone fracture, wounds, bruises)
• - Destruction and loss of vital infrastructure like transportation
• system, roads, bridges, power lines and communication lines.
• - Wide spread destruction of housing and buildings
• 2. Psychological impact
• - Grief and psychological illness
• - Marital conflict
• - Depression due to loss of loved ones and properties
• - Chronic anxiety
• 3. Socio- cultural impact
• - Displacement of population
• - Loss of cultural identity
• - Forced of adoption of new sets of culture
• - Ethnic conflicts
• 4. Economic impact
• - Loss of job due to displacement
• - Loss of harvest and livestock
• - Loss of farms, fish cages and other source of food
• - Loss of money and other valuables
• 5. Environmental impact
• - Loss of forest due to forest fires
• - Loss of fresh water due to salination
• - Disturbance of biodiversity
• - Loss of natural rivers
• 6. Biological impact
• - Epidemic to people, flora and fauna
• - Chronic and permanent illness caused by biological agents
• - Proliferation of different viral diseases
Identification of Hazards and Risk
Assessment
• Hazard identification is the process of determining all
physical andnonphysical agents in the workplace or
specific environment. Most occupational health and
safety problems are caused by hazards which are not
eliminated or managed. In order to prevent untoward
incidents in a workplace or community, elimination or
controlling of hazards is crucial. In some workplaces
where hazards cannot be eliminated, they must be
monitored and properly managed at the least.
Risk assessment is a way to determine which hazards and risks
should prioritized by taking into consideration the probability and
severity of impact.
Below are the steps in hazard identification and risk
assessment.
• 1. Identify the hazards. Use the following methods:
a. Observation - use your senses of sight, hearing, smell and touch -
combined with knowledge and experience.
b. Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) - obtain them from
manufacturers and suppliers. It gives information on possible harm from
hazardous substances and precautions that need to be taken.
c. Hazard and risk surveys - interview other people about their
safety concerns as far as the workplace is concerned. Utmost
consideration should be given to children or visitors who could
be at risk.
d. Discussion groups - are useful for identifying hazards and
recommending solutions.
e. Safety audits – a committee must be assigned to periodically
check safety in the area.
2. Assess the Risk. Once a hazard has been identified, the likelihood
and possible severity of injury or harm will need to be assessed before
determining how best to minimize the risk. High-risk hazards need to
be addressed more urgently than low- risk ones.

Risk Assessment Scoring Matrix

• 3. Make the changes. Once risks are assessed, the
next step is to make decision for some necessary
changes. These changes include removing the
hazard and replacing it with something less
hazardous, engineering modifications like
installation of exhausts, safety barriers and safety
exits, modification of procedures, etc.
Combination of the risk control measures
mentioned above to effectively reduce exposure
to hazards can also be done.
Risk assessment and control measures to
counter risks
• 4. Checking the changes made. To make sure risk has been
minimized, and a further hazard has not been created, the new
safety measures may need to be carefully tested before work
begins again. Risk assessment doesn’t end with making
changes. It is essential that these changes made are monitored
and checked. It must be monitored if thechanges done are
being followed consistently and if these changes contribute to
the improvement of safety management in the workplace.
• This last step has to be done periodically to accurately assess
the effectiveness of the entire process.
Assessment
I - Instruction: Fill in the blanks with word/s in order to make
the idea complete.

• 1. A _____________ is any agent in a workplace, can be an object

or procedure that can cause potential harm.
• 2. A ______ refers to the potential harm a hazard can cause.
• 3. ______________ refers to the susceptibility of an element
exposed to the risks of a hazard.
• 4. _______________ refers to the process of determining all the
agents in a workplace that can cause harm.
• 5. Risk Assessment takes into account the ____________ of
happening and the ___________ of impact of a risk. It is done
to determine which risks should be addressed first or prioritized.
• 6. The following are the steps in hazard identification and risk
assessment- (a) identify the hazards, (b)
____________________, (c) make changes, and lastly, (d)
_____________________.
• 7. Changes must be made after assessing the risks. The
changes made should be ____________ on a regular basis.
 II. Multiple Choice: Write the letter of the best answer
• 1. Which sequence is correct in hazard identification and risk
assessment?
• I. Modify procedures based on risk assessment. II. Assess risks.
• III. Monitor the modifications if followed. IV.Identify hazards.
A. IV, III, I, II B. IV, II, I, III C. II, I, IV, III D. II, IV, I, III

• 2. Which of the following is true about risk assessment?

• A. It is done to know which risk should be addressed first.
• B. It tells which risk is the most serious.
• C. Risk assessment is done by taking into consideration both probability and
impact.
• D. All of the above
• 3. Which impact of a hazard is an economic impact of hazard?
•A. Viral disease B. Anxiety and mental trauma
•C. Destruction of houses and buildings D. Retrenchment of employees in manufacturing companies

For items 4 to 6, match the terms with their meanings.

As a construction worker, Tyrel works in height, thus is prone to fall. He is well-
trained and wears protective equipment, though.
4. Which is considered as risk in this given scenario?
A. potential fall B. being well-trained
C. working in height D. wearing of protective equipment
5. Which is considered as the hazard?
A. potential fall B. being well-trained
C. working in height D. wearing of protective equipment
• 6. Since Tyrel is well-trained and always wears protective equipment,
how will you judge his vulnerability to a fall?
• A. high B. lowC. moderate D. cannot be determined

For items 7 to 11, given the following hazard impacts, tell whether it is physical,
psychological, socio-cultural, economic, environmental or biological.

• 7. Pollution of oceans and rivers

• A. biological B. economic C. environmental D. psychological
• 8. SARS
• A. biological B. economic C. environmental D. psychological
• 9. Retrenchments/ Job loss
A. biological B. economic C. environmental D. socio-cultural
• 10. Mental trauma
A. biological B. economic C. psychological D. socio-cultural
• 11. Broken bones
A. economic B. environmental C. physical D. socio-cultural
• 12. Which is an example of socio-cultural impact?
A. insanity B. burnt skin C. closing of factories
D. religious conflict as a result of sudden displacement of group of people
• 13. Which of the following should be given consideration in risk assessment?
A. probability and impact B. type of hazard and impact
C. severity and type of hazard D. impact and type of damage/ harm
• 14. If the product of probability and impact is 12, what is the descriptive
rating of a given risk?
A. low B. moderate C. high D. extreme
• 15. The higher the chance a risk will happen and the greater the severityof the
impact, the _______ is the priority that should be given to a risk.
A. higher B. lower C. more uncertain D. less uncertain
Earthquake Hazards and
Risk Reduction Methods
• After going through this module, you are expected
to:

1. identify various potential earthquake hazards and

ways to minimize it;
2. appreciate the value of preparedness and
resilience in disastrous situations; and
3. create a comic strip about being prepared and
resilient.
 An earthquake poses a lot of hazards which can contribute to
large economic and human losses, and represents a serious
impediment to socioeconomic development, creation of jobs and
availability of funds for poverty reduction initiatives.

Earthquake hazard and risk assessment is a fundamental tool

for developing risk reduction measures and constitutes the first
step to support decisions and actions to reduce potential losses.
A. Fault - is a fracture or zone of fractures
between two blocks due to ground movement.
B. Epicenter - is the point on the earth’s surface
directly above the focus.
C.Focus - is also known as hypocenter; it is the
origin of the earthquake.
D. Fault line subsurface -a fault below the
ground.
 L et us refresh the following earthquake concepts:

• An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release of

energy within the lithosphere.
• Earthquakes are caused by slippage along a break in the lithosphere,
called a fault.
• The energy released by an earthquake travels in all directions from the
focus in the form of seismic waves.
• The movement that occurs along faults during earthquakes is a major
factor in changing Earth’s surface.
• Forces inside Earth slowly deform the rock that makes up
Earth’s crust, causing rock to bend.
• Elastic rebound is the tendency for the deformed rock along a
fault to spring back after an earthquake.
• An aftershock is an earthquake that occurs sometime soon after
a major earthquake.
• A seismograph is a device used to record the motion of the
ground during an earthquake.
What are Earthquake Hazards?

Earthquake Hazards refer to earthquake agents which have the potential to cause
harm to a vulnerable targets which can either be humans, animals or even your
environment.

The effects of an earthquake can be classified as primary or secondary.

• Primary effects are permanent features an earthquake can bring out.

Examples include fault scarps, surface ruptures, and offsets of natural or human-
constructed objects.
• Secondary effects happen when ground movement results to other types of
destruction. Examples include landslides, tsunami, liquefaction and fire.
 4 Earthquake hazards which are considered
as secondary effects of an earthquake:
1. Landslides
Seismic vibration is a common triggering
mechanism for landslides. Landslides can have
particularly devastating effects like floods,
blocking of rivers, death, and damage to land
and natural resources.Landslides can be
prevented by reinforcing slope material,
modifying the pathway for surface and
underwater and by putting piles and retaining
walls.
• 2. Tsunami
A tsunami is a huge sea wave
triggered by a violent displacement of
the ocean floor.
Underwater earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions or landslides can cause
tsunami. As it approaches a shallow
coastline, its speed decreased, but the
height of the tsunami increases
drastically, bringing so much damage
to nearby communities. Tsunamis can
also overwhelm sewage systems,
destroy structures and kill people.
• 3. Liquefaction
Earthquake motion can turn loosely packed,
water-saturated soil to liquid—"liquefaction.”
Liquefied soil becomes less compact and
ultimately lose the ability to support roads, buried
pipes, and, of course, houses. It is caused by
vibration or saturation with water which causes
the soil to decrease in density. This poses danger
for it lead to unstable structures of buildings due
to ground subsidence.
 4. Fires
Earthquakes cause fires.
Even moderate ground shaking
can break gas and electrical
lines, sever fuel lines, and
overturn stoves. To further
complicate things, water pipes
rupture, so it would be
impossible to extinguish the fire.
Most commonly used methods of reducing earthquake risks are as follows:

1. Effective recording and interpretation of ground motion

This can be done by effective instrumentation in order to determine the
location, strength and frequency of earthquakes. This assists in providing alerts and
warnings especially to high-risk or vulnerable areas for preparation and emergency
response.

2. Constructing seismic hazard maps

A seismic hazard map shows the potential hazards in a given area. In
many regions in our country, seismic expectancy maps or hazard maps are now
available for planning purposes. It serves as basis for disaster management
information like locations for evacuation and evacuation routes. The anticipated
intensity of ground shaking is represented by a number called the peak
acceleration or the peak velocity.
3. Developing resistant structures Resistant structures are able to withstand collapse
by redistributing forces caused by seismic waves through shear walls. Developing
engineered structural designs that are able to resist the forces generated by seismic
waves can be achieved either by following building codes based on hazard maps or
by appropriate methods of analysis.

The Philippines is prone to natural calamities. For this reason, pushing for programs
that build calamity-proof housing projects must be given importance. Steel, capable of
withstanding enormous force without getting damaged, is usually used as frame in
making such houses for it provides great deal of security. Other essential
characteristics of steel are easy to maintain and can withstand the test of time and
has high strength to weight ratio. Moreover, it is proven to be eco-friendly.
Program options that can be taken by
government and private institutions to
reduce the risks of earthquake hazards
Impact-proof desk developed for pre-school students
Published April 28, 2019, 4:02 PM

A group of researchers from the

Philippine Normal University (PNU),
De La Salle University, and
Technological University of the
Philippines developed a high impact-
proof automated study desk for
preschool children following recent
consecutive earthquakes in Luzon and
Visayas
 PERFORMANCE TASK #1
Accurate information is one of the most powerful
weapons in times of disasters. Your task is to make an
informative, concise and attractive tri-fold brochure that
contains information on earthquake risk reduction.
Consider that the readers of the brochure are people
from less-privileged areas. (Option: Create Video
materials demonstrating “ What to do during
earthquake”/Earthquake Drill Procedures.
 VOLCANO-RELATED HAZARDS
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Explain various volcano-related hazards(Q1/Week6)
2. Recognize signs of an impending volcanic eruption(Q1/Week7)
3. Interpret different volcano hazard maps; (Q1/Week7)
The Philippines is an archipelago of more than 7,100 islands. Most of these islands are of volcanic
origin. There are 37 volcanoes in the Philippines, of which 18 are still active volcanoes. It means
that an eruption occurred in the last decennia and that a new eruption can be expected in the future.
Based on volcanic activity, PHIVOLCS classified volcanoes into the following
A map illustrated below
emphasized an active, potentially
active and inactive volcanoes in
the Philippines.
 Underwater Volcanoes
Most of the active volcanoes we see on land occur where plates collide. The
greatest number of the Earth’s volcanoes is hidden f spreading ridges. Volcanic
eruptions are not limited to the areas of dry land only. They can occur anywhere
where the conditions are right. Many of the most active plate margins are on the
sea floor, so it is no surprise to discover that the ocean's depths conceal long
chains of volcanoes, some far larger than any on dry land.

The processes that form volcanoes are essentially the same above and below
water. The conditions under water are different to those on dry land; there's a lot of
water (obviously) and that means more pressure and a lower temperature, both of
which have an influence on how the volcano forms and how it is weathered.
In deep water the same process applies but when the magma reaches
the surface it is met by a much greater pressure. As an example, the
base of Kawio Barat in Indonesia (a giant undersea volcano) is 5,500
meters below sea level and magma reaching the surface there is met by
545 times more pressure pushing down on it than a volcano at sea level
on dry land. At such pressures steam clouds cannot form, and material
cannot be thrown up from the volcano as we see when a land volcano
throws ash and rock into the air.

When magma reaches the surface, it becomes lava, and it immediately

has contact with very cold high pressure water. This activity limits the
force of the eruption in two ways.
some pictures of underwater
volcanic eruption:
 Signs of Impending Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanic eruption is one of the most dangerous natural events because of the
different hazards that it may bring as discussed previously. While volcanoes may give
off several warning signs they are about to blow, some are taken more seriously by
volcanologists who alert and advise government officials regarding when evacuations
need to take place. These early warning signs make it easier for people to prepare
and prevent damages to properties and loss of lives.

There are signs that are examined, depending on how this particular volcano is
closely monitored. The most common type of monitoring is by seismicity. Even one
seismometer can tell if there is an increase of seismic activity on a usually
seismically-quiet volcano.
 If you have at least 3 seismometers, and they are strategically
placed, you can triangulate on earthquakes to see if they are
occurring in a place that indicates perhaps magma movement.

Another type of data used is the study of ground deformation. When

magma moves up into the shallow plumbing of a volcano, it takes up
space and pushes the surrounding rock outward. This activity also
causes the surface of the volcano to deform
Some people like to monitor volcanoes by constantly monitoring gases
that come out of fumaroles. Most active volcanoes have fumaroles
where volcanic gases escape to the surface. It is relatively easy to
monitor the temperatures of these gases, and an anomalous increase in
temperature might be a sign that magma has moved closer to the
surface.

A number of people are studying ways using satellite data to monitor

volcanoes. It is possible to obtain thermal images of volcanic areas, and
by comparing images on a monthly or bi-weekly basis, increases or
decreases in temperatures can be detected.
The following are commonly observed signs that a volcano is about to erupt. These
precursors may vary from volcano to volcano.

1. Increase in the frequency of volcanic quakes with

rumbling sounds; occurrence of volcanic tremors.

Volcanic earthquakes serve as an early warning sign for an

impending eruption, as well as well as a marker for the location
of a moving magma and sudden rise of gases. Earthquakes are
caused by the magma breaking through rocks or by moving
through rock cracks. On the other hand, volcanic tremor is a
long-lasting rhythmic signal associated with magma in motion
that can last for minutes or days.
2. Increased steaming activity; change in color of
steam from white to gray due to entrained ash

Steam occurs mostly on active volcanoes. Presence

of steam signals that magma is lying relatively close
to the surface of the volcano. Steam is produced
when groundwater and magma or any ignited
fragment of rock interacts. Meanwhile, ash is one of
the fragments of magma produced when magma is
ejected with great force. Presence of ashes signals
that the magma is being ejected violently.
3. Crater glow due to presence of magma at
or near the crater

Crater glow can be observed when the

magma finally reaches the surface, and
thus referred as lava.
4. Ground swells (or inflation), ground tilt and
ground fissuring due to magma intrusion

Moving magma, gases, and other volcanic

fluids tend to cause the surface of the Earth
to bulge upward (inflate) or spread apart
which can eventually lead to ground
fissuring or cracking.
5. Localized landslides, rock falls and landslides
from the summit area that are not attributed to
heavy rains

Landslide is the movement of rocks and soil

influenced by the force of gravity, strength of
the material, and steepness of a volcano. As
magma rises together with volcanic gases,
rocks are altered and weakened.
6. Noticeable increase in drying up of vegetation around the volcano's upper
slopes

As the magma rises, the temperature of

the volcano also increases. The heat
brought by the rising magma if high
enough, can dry up the vegetation.
7. Increase in temperature of hot springs, wells (e.g. Bulusan and Canlaon) and
crater lake (e.g. Taal) near the volcano

Again, as the magma rises, the

temperature of the volcano also
increases. The heat brought by the
rising magma influences and causes
the temperature of the springs, wells,
or lake to increase.
8. Noticeable variation in the chemical content of springs, crater lakes within
the vicinity of the volcano

Groundwater deep within the surface of the

volcano interacts with magma, volcanic gases,
hot rocks, and even with other water coming from
springs, lakes, wells. Presence of certain
compounds signals the presence of magma such
as magmatic carbon dioxide, or high helium
isotopes.
 9. Drying up of springs/wells around the volcano

As mentioned, rising magma generates quakes and tremors which may cause ground
deformation (cracks or fissures) on the surface. This may cause the water from springs or well to
recede and seep through these cracks. Also, as the magma rise, the temperature of the surface
of the volcano also increases and if high enough, may cause the drying up of the springs and
wells.
 10. Development of new thermal areas and/or reactivation of old ones; appearance
of solfataras (craters with sulfur gas)

Development of new thermal areas

and/or reactivation of old ones signals the
active movement of magma within the
volcano as it interacts with groundwater or
rocks.
Therefore, it is important to be able to
observe warning signs of volcanic unrest so
that people can evacuate in time, and
minimize injuries and casualties. It is
therefore important to be able to monitor a
volcano’s activity, and this is normally done
with the aid of different tools or instruments
to monitor the different parameters.
The parameters used to monitor volcanoes are

1. Ground deformation – any surface changes on a volcano (subsidence/sinking,

tilting, bulging); often use of tiltmeters as well as satellite imaging which results to
less exposure on the ground or safer for volcanologists. However, interpretation
needs field verification sometimes.

2. Seismic Activity – when magma rises up, it breaks rock along the way. Thus,
earthquakes are generated. Monitoring of quakes/tremors is done by using a
seismometer that determines which patterns of seismic waves precede an eruption.
3. Gases – monitor types and rate of emission of different gases; Concentrations of
gases are sometimes high enough to create acid rain that kills vegetation around the
volcano; collection of samples from vents directly with the use of remote sensing
instruments that identify and quantify the present gases

4. Sensory observations (by people living near volcano)

• Visual – intensified presence of steam; drying up of vegetation, wells/spring/lake;
crater glow at the mouth of the volcano
• Auditory – rumbling sounds are heard.
• Olfactory – observed foul smell (usually rotten egg caused by sulfur) caused by
presence of volcanic gases
• Tactile – ground movement/earthquake is felt
 Potential Volcano-Related Hazards

Volcanic eruptions can have drastic impact on our lives. They can affect the property
we own, the land we live in, the water we drink, and even the air we breathe. In serious
cases, people may have to leave their homes and move to safe areas.

A. Pyroclastic Flow and Surges

These hot, fast moving mixtures of ash, rock fragments and gas flow from a
collapsed eruption column or lava dome, travel down to the valleys and cause total
devastation of the area over which they flow. They differ from pyroclastic surges in
that they are denser and usually travel with a greater physical force whereas surges
usually contain more gases.
Pyroclastic surges form in a similar way to pyroclastic flows but their effects are more
widespread since they may also sweep across ridges and hills as well as down valleys. A hot
pyroclastic surge can cause death from suffocation, inhalation of poisonous gases and severe
burns.
B. Ballistic Projectiles
Ballistic projectiles are rocks that an erupting volcano may hurl into the air. These
blocks and bombs travel like cannonballs and usually land within 2km of the vent (but
can travel as far as 5km, or even further, if the eruption is very explosive).
C. Lava Flows
These consist of molten rocks that stream down the slope of a volcano, destroying
everything in its path and possibly causing forest fires (typical of Hawaiian volcanoes).
As the volcano emits lava, it accumulates around the vent thereby creating a lava
dome. These lava domes are often unstable and eventually they collapse and lead to
pyroclastic flows.
D. Ash falls
Large quantities of ash produced during a volcanic eruption can be thick enough to collapse roofs,
destroy vegetation and cause aircraft, ship and car engines to malfunction. They can also be very
dangerous to people's health since even the finest fractions of ash may cause serious respiratory
problems if they are inhaled. This hazard may persist long after the eruption itself has ended and can
affect neighboring islands as well
E. Lahars (Mudflows)
These are mixtures of volcanic water and rock fragments which rush down the slopes of a
volcano and into the surrounding valleys. The word 'lahar' is an Indonesian term that describes a
mudflow often triggered by heavy rains or earthquakes during and after a volcanic eruption. Lahars
are destructive to everything in their path and may occur years after an eruption has ended.
Multiple Choice. Select the letter of the best answer from among the given choices.

1. The following are commonly observed signs that a volcano is about to erupt
EXCEPT____________.
A. crater glow due to presence of magma at or near the crater
B. decrease in the frequency of volcanic quakes with rumbling sounds;
occurrence of volcanic tremors
C. noticeable increase in the extent of cooling up of vegetation around the
volcano's upper slopes
D. increased steaming activity; change in color of steam emission from white to
gray due to the presence of the ash

2. Volcanic gases such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon monoxide could lead to:
A. ash fall B. damage in properties C. volcanic eruption D. lava formation
3. Even when a volcano is not erupting, ____________ in the ground allow gases
to reach the surface through small openings.
A. cracks B. crater C. faults D. volcano

4. The eruption of ____________ injects huge amounts of sulfur dioxide gas into
the stratosphere, where it combines with water to form an aerosol (mist) of sulfuric
acid.
A. Mt. Bulusan B. Mt. Mayon C. Mt. Pinatubo D. Taal Volcano

5. It is the most active volcano in the Philippines.

A. Hibok-hibok B. Mt. Mayon C. Mt. Pinatubo D. Taal Volcano
Assessment
1. What do you call the molten rocks found beneath the Earth?
A.elements B. lava C. magma D. minerals

2. Which of the signs of an impending volcanic eruption refers to the swelling of

volcano that signals the accumulation of magma near its surface?
A. gas emission B. harmonic tremors
C. increase in number of earthquake D. bulges in the mountain or inflammation

3. People residing near volcanoes may detect premonitory events before a volcanic
eruption. Which of the following senses is not used?
A. auditory B. gustatory C. tactile D. visual

4. What is the property of substances to resist flow?

A. buoyancy B. density C. pressure D. viscosity
5. Which toxic gas is released naturally by volcanic activity?
A. carbon dioxide B. carbon monoxide C. hydrochloric acid D. sulfur dioxide
6. Which of the following substances is responsible for a rotten egg smell?
A. helium B. magnesium C. silica D. sulfur
7. Which of the following statements is true?
I. One warning sign observed is enough to predict an eruption.
II. One warning sign observed is not enough to predict an eruption.
III. Small changes recorded from an instrument is enough to predict an eruption.
IV. Small changes recorded from an instrument is not enough to predict an eruption.
A. I and III B. I and IV C. II and III D. II and IV
8. Which of the following characteristics of magma mainly affects the explosiveness of
a volcanic eruption?
A. amount B. color C. silica content D. temperature
9. Which of the following statements is true?
I. People shall not be alarmed if a small change in tiltmeters is observed.
II. Increasing sustained number of quakes indicates the volcano is about to erupt.
III. Increasing number of thermal vents shall be monitored continuously.
A. I only B. I and II only C. II and III only D. I, II, and III
10. Which of the following statements is correct?
I. Presence of crater glow indicates that explosive eruption will occur.
II. Bulging of the ground indicates that the volcano is going to erupt within a
week.
III. Observed rock falls and landslides indicates an impending volcanic eruption.
IV. Long-lasting rhythmic quakes is a sign of an impending volcanic eruption.
A. I, III, IV B. II, III, IV C. III only D. IV only
11. All of the following events indicate an impending eruption
except:
A. a measurable bulge or swelling of the volcano
B. occurrence of short earthquakes in the region
C. discovery of new hot springs around the volcano
D. increased temperature of hot springs around the volcano

12. Which of the following is a parameter used to monitor

volcanoes by observing the surface of the volcano for any
changes?
A. gases B. ground deformation C. seismic activity D. sensory observations
13. Which of the following should be continuously monitored to in a lake or
hot spring around a volcano?
A. chemical content B. temperature C. turbidity D. all of the above

14. Which of the following instruments is not used in monitoring a volcano?

A. tiltmeter B. seismogram C. seismometer D. satellite imaging

15. Which of the following events does not indicate an impending eruption?
A. drying up of hot springs around the volcano
B. eroded area of the volcano after a heavy rain
C. drying up of the vegetation around the volcano
D. variation in the chemical content of the lakes and springs around the volcano
Answer Key
 Geological Hazards: Landslides and
Sinkholes
The module focuses only about the lesson:

Lesson 1 – Knowing different geological hazards

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Understand what a Rainfall-induced Landslide and sinkhole is.

2. Describe in his/her own words the definition of a landslide and a sinkhole.
3. Explain the different types of landslides and sinkholes.
4. Produce a poster or a slogan regarding Landslide and Sinkhole.
5. Realize the importance of creating warning signs for the safety of living creatures
and mankind.
 Lesson Lesson 1 : Explain Different Types of Geological Hazards
Geological hazards are natural phenomena that cause major problems around the
world. The expansion and development of cities has led to an increase in impact and
damage due to geological hazards. In general, most of the geological hazards are
related to natural conditions, although some may be due to human activities. While
landslides come in various names such as mudslide, flash flood, avalanche, etc. The
actual difference is in their composition provided that there is an inclined terrain.
Sinkholes, on the other hand, can occur on elevated or flat surfaces and can range
from massive to barely noticeable which may leave a dent, a hole, or a body of water
on the ground.

Therefore, as a student you need to be aware of the different types of landslides and
sinkholes in order to be prepared for the danger that it may cause.
Activity 1: Essay.
Direction: Analyze the illustration and answer the following
questions thoroughly
This is a before and after illustration of a debris avalanche
of Mount Pinatubo located on the tripoint boundary of
Zambales, Tarlac and Pampanga, northern part of Luzon.
Based from the illustration, answer the following question
below.
Guide questions:

1.What happened to the appearance of the crater after the

volcanic eruption?
2. What happened to the portions of the volcano that were
removed?
3. What geologic hazard could be responsible for the
movement of the soil?
Activity 2: Present a situation.

Direction: These are the some of the landslide precaution

signs often found on the roadsides. Answer the following
questions below.

1. Have you ever seen one of these signages on the

roadsides? If yes, where, and when?
2. What do these signages mean?
3. Why is the second image highlighted in red?
4. When and where did you see these road signs?
5. What is common in these places where they are
placed?
 Landslide

A landslide is a ground movement on a

sloping terrain. It does not happen on flat
ground because of the angle on the ground,
gravity induces the land to move downward. It
is aggravated by rain because water is a
natural agent for erosion. If rain or any source
of water frequently flows down a sloping area,
the gravitational descent of loosened soil
makes it possible for landslide to occur.
 Structures that are built on steep-slope mountains
have a high vulnerability to landslide hazards especially
during heavy rains. Areas with: steep slope, dense
population and denuded terrain are distinguished by a
high susceptibility to rainfall-induced landslide hazards.
Long or regular rain may saturate the topsoil and the
bedrock, weakening the soil base of buildings or
structures. Without plants and trees whose roots can
absorb water and hold the soil together, subsequent
rain water can continue to loosen up the soil that
anchors the buildings. A heavy downpour of rain can
quickly destroy these buildings and communities, giving
way to landslides, mudslides, or mudflows.
Types of Landslide

1. Soil Creep Landslide is a very slow

downslope movement of particles that
occurs in every slope covered with
loose, weathered material (Britannica
dictionary).

2. Slumping Landslide is a downward

movement of rock debris, usually the
consequence of removal of buttressing
earth at the foot of a slope of
unconsolidated material (Britannica
dictionary).
3. Debris Flow Landslide
happens when the slope becomes
saturated with water, this then
triggers a landslide of water-
soaked mass of rock and soil that
slides down the slope.

4. Rock Fall landslides are sudden

slides caused by heavy rain the rock
on the slope loosens and then slides
down the slope.
 Sinkhole
A sinkhole is a topographic depression
created when groundwater dissolves
the underlying limestone bedrock.
Often known as "sink" or "doline,".

Characteristics:
 occur in areas where the soil
foundation is made of soft minerals and
rocks such as limestone, salt beds, or
any acidic rocks.

 The depth of sinkholes ranges from a

couple of meters to several mile deep.
How it occurs:

Water from the rainfall seeps underneath the soil

through the cracks and fissures. As water passes
through these cracks and fissures, it erodes the soil and
forms a conduit system, these underground water
systems increase in size as the soil is carried by the
water through internal erosion. This can either form a
void filled with air with an underground drainage. If the
void is clogged with clay, then it forms a depression
which then accumulates water and forms a pond.
Otherwise it forms a hole once the cover collapses into
the void which can be either filled with air or water.
Types of Sinkholes

There are three main types of sinkholes, according to the geologist, but there is an additional
category, the artificial sinkholes which are caused by human activity.

1. Cover Collapse Sinkhole

It develops suddenly (over an hour period) thus, causing catastrophic damage.
2. Cover Subsidence Sinkhole
It gradually grows where the sediment covers are permeable and contain sand.
3. Dissolution Sinkhole
It occurs in areas where calcareous is exposed on the ground or where thin layers of soil
and permeable sand are also covered. Limestone or dolomite dissolution is most intense
when the water first reaches the rock surface.
4. Artificial Sinkhole
Such types of sinks may be caused by various human activities, including groundwater
pumping and building.
Activity 3: True or False
Write “true” if the statement is correct about landslides and sinkhole and “false” if the statement
is wrong.

1. An avalanche is a landslide.
2. Sinkholes form in sedimentary rock deposits.
3. Holes are the only byproduct of a sinkhole.
4. Cover-subsidence sinkholes can be undetected for long periods.
5. Soil creep is faster than slumping.
6. Landslides only occur in inclined areas.
7. Depressions on the ground that resulted from the collapse of the surface layer of the soil is called
a sinkhole.
8. Rock fall landslides are made of water saturated soil.
9. Water is a natural agent of erosion.
10. Landslides that have hardly noticeable damage due to slow movement are soil creep.
 Assessment
Read each item comprehensively and write the letter of the correct answer on extra sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following is a type of sinkhole that develops abruptly which cause
catastrophic damage?
a. artificial b. cover collapse c. cover subsidence d. dissolution

2. What type of sinkhole develops gradually where the covering sediments are
permeable and contain sand?
a. artificial b. cover collapse c. cover subsidence d. dissolution

3. Which of the following occurs in areas where limestone is exposed at land

surface?
a. artificial b. cover collapse c. cover subsidence d. dissolution
4. Which of the following sinkholes is primarily caused by various human activities
including groundwater pumping and construction activities?
a. artificial b. cover collapse c. cover subsidence d. dissolution

5. Which of the following is always true about sinkholes?

a. can only form holes b. can be shallow or deep
c. can only occur on land d. can form above igneous rocks

6. Which of the following is a landslide characterized by short distance movement

down a slope, sliding along concave-upward or planar surface?
a. debris flow b. slumping c. soil creep d. topples

7. Which of the following is not a condition for a landslide to occur?

a. bare vegetation b. flat terrain c. heavy rain d. inclined location
8. This is a depression in the ground that resulted from the collapse of the surface
layer of the soil.
a. earthquake b. landslide c. sinkhole d. tsunami

9. Which of the following characteristics of a rock is essential in order to produce a

sinkhole?
a. dense b. hard c. lustrous d. soluble

10. Which of the following is not an ideal environment for sinkholes to occur?
a. limestone saturated b. salt beds c. sedimentary deposits d. volcanic craters

11. Landslide is the downward ground movement on a sloping terrain caused by

gravity. It also comes scientific term such as ________.
a. land agitation b. landmass c. landslip d. land tremors
12. Which of the following is a natural agent of erosion which flows and loosens the
soil?
a. air b. alcohol c. butane d. water

13. What type of landslide has a very slow movement which is hardly noticeable?
a. debris flow b. rock fall c. slumping d. soil creep

14. Which of the following pertains to a sudden slide of rocks downslope?

a. rock failure b. rock fall c. rock slip d. rock stead

15. Which of the following happens when the slope becomes saturated with water
triggering a landslide of water sacked mass of rock and soil?
a. debris flow b. rock fall c. slumping d. soil creep
Answer Key
 HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL
HAZARDS

After going through this module, you are expected

to:

1. identify different hydrometeorological hazard;

2. familiarize with the different hydrometeorological
hazard maps and
3. apply different hydrometeorological hazard maps
for proper preparation.
 Interpret Different Hydro Meteorological
Hazard Maps

Climate and Weather-Related Hazards

NATURAL HAZARD - is defined as a natural process or event

potentially damaging that result in loss of life or injury, loss of
property, socio-economic destruction or environmental degradation.

CLIMATE- AND WEATHER-RELATED HAZARDS, refer to the direct

and indirect effects of observed changes in the frequencies and
occurrences of extreme weather/climate events (such as tropical
cyclones, droughts, and El Niño and La Niña events).
 Interpret Different Hydro-
Meteorological
Hazard Maps

Natural Hazard is an extreme event that

occurs naturally and causes harm to
humans and things that we care about,
that hazard may categorized as natural and
anthropogenic hazards. Climate and
weather-related hazards, such as
typhoons and droughts, as well as
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and
tsunamis, ARE NATURAL HAZARDS while
deforestation, mining and climate change is
called MAN-MADE, HAZARDS.
HAZARD MAPS highlights areas that are affected and/or
vulnerable to a particular hazard and help prevent serious
damage and deaths.
Rainfall in the Philippines

A Modified Coronas Climate

Classification shows the
monthly rainfall variations in
the Philippines: Rainfall
distribution throughout the
country varies from one region
to another, depending upon the
direction of the winds and the
location of mountain systems.
Rainfall Observation
In their weather forecast, PAGASA
or Philippine Atmospheric,
Geophysical and Astronomical
Services Administration publishes
regularly updated color-coded
satellite images generated from
Himawari-8 (shown at right), a geo-
stationary weather sattelite that that
visualizes rain distribution in the
Philippines. This satellite is succesor
to Japan Meteorological Agency’s
Multi-functional Transport Satellite
(MTSAT) series, and is currently the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2020).
most used satellite imagery for Butchoy 2020 Luzon landfall. GIF file.
https://www.ssd.noaa.gov/PS/TROP/floaters/98W/imag
weather monitoring. ery/wv-animated.gif
Today, some provinces of the Philippines are considered areas highly
at risk to the occurrence of tropical depressions, tropical storms,
typhoons and super typhoons. These are: Cagayan; Albay, Ifugao,
Sorsogon, Kalinga, Ilocos Sur, Ilocos Norte, Camarines Norte,
Mountain Province, Camarines Sur, Northern Samar, Catanduanes,
Apayao, Pampanga, La Union, Nueva Ecija, Pangasinan, Masbate,
Tarlac, and Western Samar.

The Philippine Radar Network

In addition to the satellite observation, PAGASA operates 10 weather

radar stations all over the Philippines in analyzing rainfall from
thunderstorms or typhoons. A rain gauges was use and the most
common is the tipping bucket type. For this type of rain gauge, the
funnel collects the rain and when it has a certain amount of
precipitation, the rain gauge sends electrical signals to the receiver.
A Doppler Weather Radars was acquired
by PAGASA several years. It is an
instruments that send out and reflect
electromagnetic signals and the receiver for
the radar listens for these reflections. The
most important objects that the radar signal
detects are the clouds.

Doppler radars, tell the amount of rain the

clouds bring and have a higher resolution.
Doppler radars are located at Aparri, Baguio,
Baler, Subic, Tagaytay, Virac, Gulian, Cebu.
Hinatuan and Tampakan.
FLOOD HAZARD MAP
A tool that determines flood zone areas due to different hazards such as storm, surge
waves, sea level.
The NOAH Nationwide Operational Assessment website displays the PAGASA radar
data, rainfall measurements of rain gauges of DOST, and has flood hazard maps in the
Philippines. Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards or NOAH, a program under
the Department of Science and Technology (DOST), advance the use of cutting edge
technology and recommend innovative information services in government’s disaster
prevention and mitigation efforts. DOST-NOAH can be accessed online at
http://noah.up.edu.ph/. Below is a screen shot from the Project NOAH web page,
indicating the flood prone areas of Manila. Note the meaning of the colors indicated on
the left of the screen shot.
EL NIÑO HAZARD

While we are usually concerned with heavy rainfall events, lack of rain is
also a significant condition that we also experience. The Philippines
experiences the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) or simply El Niño.
El Niño a significant increase in ocean temperature and it occurs at
irregular intervals ranging from 2-7 years. Months prior to the onset of El
Niño, PAGASA publishes Drought/Dry spell outlook meant as a warning
for impending dry conditions so the people can prepare for such extreme
events.
La Niña that describes the cooling of surface ocean waters and is a
counterpart to El Nino, which is unusually warm ocean temperatures in
the equatorial region of the Pacific Ocean.

Below is an infographic from PAGASA issued last July 7, 2020

http://pubfiles.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/pagasaweb/files/climate/monthlyclimateassessment/jun-
jul_2020_mcao.pdf. What weather phenomenon is expected to arrive in the next few months?
 The Elements of Fire Triangle

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. define fire;
2. enumerate the elements of the fire triangle;
3. create a meme (a humorous or informative illustration)
that involves one or more elements of the fire triangle; and
4. relate fire triangle principles in everyday experiences.
Fire is considerably a friend but once fire is not controlled it could be
one of our greatest enemies. Irresponsibility may lead to disaster and
everything may change as fast as a split of a second. Based on the
Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP), an average of 42 fire incidents were
recorded from year 2013 to 2017. You probably have heard of a fire that
broke out at Kentex Manufacturing, a factory of slippers and shoes in
Valenzuela, Metro Manila on May 13, 2015. It is considered as the third
worst fire incident in our country killing 74 people trapped inside the
said factory, next to the 1996 Ozone Disco Club fire and the 2001
Manor Hotel fire that led to the death of 162 and 75 people, respectively.

In all fire cases, loss of lives, jobs, investments and properties can
literally go up in smoke just in a matter of hours. Knowledge on the
behavior, causes, effects and safety tips can help save lives and
properties.
Ancient Greeks considered fire as one
of their major elements like water, The Fire Triangle

earth and air. Unlike water, earth and

air, fire is known to be just an event
that happened when matter changes
from one form to another.

Fire is the rapid oxidation of a

material in the exothermal chemical
process of combustion, releasing
heat, light, and various reaction
products. This diagram below
demonstrates the fire triangle.
1. Fuel is any material that can be burned such as solid, liquid, or gas.
Combustion takes place when fuel is converted into gaseous state as
moisture is removed. This happens when vapor is escaping from any
combustible material.

2. Heat is an energy that flows through object. Enough amount of heat

would free the vapor from solid and liquid forms of fuel. The lowest
temperature needed to form an ignitable mixture in air near the surface
of the liquid is called the flash point. The higher the flashpoint, the
more difficult it is to ignite the material. The ignition of fire to solid and
liquid fuels varies. Most solid combustible materials ignite immediately.
Other solid combustible materials take time to ignite due to its density.
3. Oxygen is an element, estimated 21% of it can be found in
the air. During combustion process chemical reaction takes
place. Oxygen is released and serves as an oxidizing agent for
combustible materials. Without an oxidizing agent like oxygen
there will be no fire even if heat and fuel are present.

The theory of fire extinguishment is based on removing any of

the elements in the fire triangle to suppress the fire.

1. REMOVING THE HEAT. The goal here is to lower the

temperature which is usually accomplished by adding water as
an extinguishing agent. Other extinguishing agents include
chemical and mechanical foams.
2. REMOVING THE FUEL. In most cases, removing the fuel from the
fire is not a practical way of extinguishing fire except when dealing with
flammable liquid fires, valves can be shut off and storage vessels
pumped to safe areas to help eliminate the supply of fuel to the fire.

3. REMOVE THE OXYGEN. Air is mainly 21% oxygen and this is

sufficient to support combustion in most fire situations. Removal of the
air or oxygen can be accomplished by separating it from the fuel source
or by displacing it with other gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen and
steam. Examples of separation would be foam on a flammable liquid
fire, a wet blanket on a trash fire, or a tight fitting lid on a skillet fire.
Foam does not only lower temperature but also remove oxygen.