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CHAPTER 8
ACID AND BASES

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 8.1 THEORIES OF ACIDS AND BASES

In this topics we will be learning about the theories of Acids

and Bases.
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 The Old Theories
Theory of Antoine Lavoisier
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 He assumed that maybe
the characteristic that
makes an acid is the
presence of oxygen. He
called these' oxein- genic'
from the ancient Greek
term for acids, which felt to
link them to oxygen.
Arrhenius Theory
 He suggested that acids
are substances that break
up in water to yield
electrically charged atoms
or molecules, called ions,
one of which is a hydrogen
ion(H), and that bases
ionize in water to yield
hydroxide ions (OH-).
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 Brønsted-Lowry Theory

 This theory focuses on the transfer of H+ ions during an

acid-base reaction, where the acid donates H+ ions while
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bases accept H+ ions.

 For example: HCl + NH3  NH4+ + Cl- , we can see that
HCl transfers H+ to NH3 , so HCl acts as a acid, in the other
hand, NH3 accepts the H+ ion, so it acts as a base.
 H+ can be said a proton, as it loses its electron, to become
a positive ion.
 We can summarize the Brønsted-Lowry Theory as:
 A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a proton (H+ ) donor;
 A Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton (H+ ) acceptor.

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 Conjugate Pairs

 A conjugate acid – base pair consists of two substances

that vary just by the presence of a proton( H ⁺). A
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conjugate acid is formed when a proton is added to a

base, and a conjugate base is formed when a proton is
removed from an acid.
 Example: HA + B  A- + BH+ . Here HA acts as a acid by
donating a proton to B, while B acts as a base by
accepting a proton from HA. By looking at the reverse
reaction, we can see another acid-base reaction. BH+ is
acting as a acid by donating its proton to A- , while A- acts
as a base by accepting protons from BH+ .
 Example: H2O (l) + H+ (aq)  H3O+ (aq)
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 Some Species can act as
acids and bases
 The Brønsted-Lowry Theory suggests that acids and
bases in terms of how they react together. So as per
Brønsted-Lowry Theory it all depends on what water is
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reacting with.
 CH3COOH + H2O  CH3COO- + H3O+ Acids
 NH3 + H2O  NH4+ + OH- Bases

 With CH3COOH, water reacts as a base, but with NH3 ,

water reacts as an acid.
 Substances which can act as Brønsted-Lowry acids and
bases in this way are said to be Amphiprotic.
 We can summarize that:
 Brønsted-Lowry acid, must be able to dissociate and release H - .
 Brønsted-Lowry base, must be able to accept H- , which means they
must have a lone pair of electrons 6
 8.2 PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES
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Strength
Corrosiveness
Coloration
Odors
Acid-Base Reactions

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 Substances which
can form OH- ions in
solutions
Bases and Alkalis

BASES: Substances
which can accept H+
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 Acids react with metal, bases
and carbonates to from salts
 A salt is the ionic compound formed when the hydrogen of an acid is
replaced by a metal or positive ion. A salt is formed when there is a
reaction between a metal and a non-metal.
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 The terms Parent Acid and Parent Base are at times used to
describe this relationship between acid, base, and their salt.

Parent base Parent acid

NaOH HCl

H2O
NaCl
Salt

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 Types of Reaction to from
Salts
 Acid + Metal  salt + Hydrogen
 2HCl(aq) + Zn(s)  ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) is an example for this type of reaction.
 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + Zn(s)  Zn2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2 (g),in this reaction we can see that Chlorine ions
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did not react, so they are called Spectator Ions, who do not take part in the reaction.
 The reason why acid has a corrosive properties, is due to its reaction with a metal.
 Acid + Base  Salt + Water
 HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) is an example for this type of reaction.
 The reaction between the acid and base is known as Neutralization reaction.
 The enthalpy of neutralization is defined as the enthalpy change that occurs when an acid
and a base react together to form 1 mole of water
 Acid + Carbonate  Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide
 2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s)  CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) is an example for this type of reaction.
 These reactions can be represented as an ionic equation:
2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq)  H2O(l) + CO2(g)
 Reactions, like acids and water, involve a gas been given off, as the reaction
visibly produce bubbles, known as effervescence.
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 Acids and Bases can be
Distinguished by Indicators
 Acid- base indicators change colour reversibly
according to the concentration of H+ ions in the
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solution. The colour change is used to identify

the pH of a substance.
Indicator Colour in Acid Colour in Base
Litmus Pink Blue
Methyl Orange Red Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink

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 Acid-Base Titrations

 Acid-base titration are based on neutralization reaction.

 The technique known as acid- base titration involves
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reacting together a precisely measured volume of one of

the solutions, and adding the other solution little by little
until the so- called equivalence point is reached where
they precisely neutralize each other.
 A handy way to determine when the equivalence point has
been reached is to utilize an indicator, chosen to change
color as the acid and base precisely neutralize each other.
 A good indicator is the one that gives a distinct and sharp
colour change at the equivalence point.

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 8.3 THE pH SCALE
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 pH is A Logarithmic Expression
of [H ]
+
 Majority of the acids encountered are weak, the
hydrogen ion concentration expressed directly as mol
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dm-3 produces numbers with large negative exponents.

The introduction of the pH scale in 1909 by Sorensen led
to wide acceptance owing to its ease of use. It is defined
as follows:
 pH = -log10[H+]
[H+] = 10-pH
 A solution that has [H+] = 0.1 mol dm-3  [H+] = 10-1 mol dm-3 
pH = 1.
 A solution that has [H+] = 0.01 mol dm-3  [H+] = 10-2 mol dm-3
 pH = 2.

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 Scale of pH numbers
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pH 0 pH 7 pH 14

Increasing [H+] neutral Increasing [OH+]

Increasing acidity Increasing alkalinity

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 Measuring pH

 pH meter or probe that directly reads the [H+]

concentration through a special electrode. pH
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meters can record to an accuracy of several

decimals points. They must, however, be
calibrated before each use with a buffer solution,
and standardize for the temperature, as pH is
temperature-dependent measurement.

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 The Ionization of Water

 Water itself does ionize, even if only very slightly at

normal temperatures and pressure, so we can write
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an equilibrium expression for this reaction.

H2O(l)  H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
 Therefore, Kc =
 Kc[H2O] = [H+][OH-]
 Then we take Kc[H2O] as a ionic product constant of water
as define it as Kw = [H+][OH-], so at 298 K, Kw = 1.00 × 10-14.
 In pure water [H+] = [OH-], it says that [H+] =
 At 298 K, [H+] = 1.00 × 10-7 which gives pH = 7.00

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 The relationship between H+
and OH- is inverse
 The product [H+] × [OH-] gives a constant
value, it follows that the concentrations of
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these ions must have an inverse relationship.

 In aqueous solutions the higher the
concentration of H+, the lower the
concentration of OH-.
At 298K
Acidic solution are defined as those in which [H+] > [OH-] pH < 7
Neutral solution are defined as those in which [H+] = [OH-] pH = 7
Alkaline solution are defined as those in which [H+] < [OH-] pH > 7

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 8.4 Strong and Weak Acids and Bases
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 Strength of an Acid or Base

 The strength of an acid or a base depends on its extent of

ionization.
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 The relative strength of an acid or base is the extent to which it

ionizes when dissolved in water. If the ionization reaction is
essentially complete, the acid or base is termed strong; if
relatively little ionization occurs, the acid or base is weak.
 Strong acid is a good proton donor and has a weak conjugate
base.
 Weak acids are poor proton donor
 Strong bases are a good proton acceptor and has a weak
conjugate acid. They fully ionize.
 Weak bases are a poor proton acceptor. They partially ionize.
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 Weak/Strong Acids/Bases
Acid Base

Hydrochloric Lithium
HCl Acid LiOH Hydroxide
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Sodium
\Common HNO3 Nitric Acid NaOH Hydroxide
example of
strong forms H2SO4 Sulphuric Acid KOH Potassium
Hydroxide
Ba(OH) 2 Barium Hydroxide
CH3COOH
and other Ethanoic Acid NH3 Ammonia
Some organic acids
examples of H CO C2H5NH2 and
Carbonic Acid Ethylamine
weak forms 2 3 other amines
H3 PO4 Phosphoric Acid

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 Distinguishing Between Strong
and Weak Acids and Bases
Electrical Conductivity Rate of Reaction pH
•Electrical conductivity of a •Some reactions of acids •Because it is a measure of
solution depends on the depend on the the H+ concentration, the
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concentration of mobile concentration of H+ ions. pH scale can be used to

ions. Strong acids and They will thus be at a compare the strengths of
strong bases will thus show greater rate with stronger acids. The higher the H+
high conductivity than weak acids. concentration, the lower
acids and bases so long as • These different rates of the pH value. Universal
solutions of the equal reactions may be an indicator or a pH meter
concentration are important consideration, can be used to measure
compared. This can be
measured using a but they generally don't pH.
conductivity meter or give any easy means of
probe, or by using the quantifying data to
conductivity setting on a pH differentiate between
meter. weak and strong acids.

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 Bibliography
 Early Theories of Acids & Bases. (2017, August 5). Retrieved from slide 3
https://study.com/academy/lesson/early-theories-of-acids-bases.html.
 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopedia. "Arrhenius theory". Encyclopedia Britannica, 4 Feb.
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2020, https://www.britannica.com/science/Arrhenius-theory. Accessed 20 June 2023. From slide

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 Pearson Baccalaureate Chemistry Higher Level 2nd Edition for the IB Diploma.
https://ebooks.papacambridge.com/viewer/ib/group-4-scienceschemistry-pearson-hl-chemistr
y-hl-catrin-brown-and-mike-ford-second-edition-pearson-2014-pdf
. Page Number – 347 to 363s, from slide 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21
 Chemical Indicators | Types of halochromic chemical compound from slide 11,
https://byjus.com/chemistry/chemical-indicators/

 Strength of an Acid or Base from slide 20,

https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/14-3-relative-strengths-of-acids-and-bases#:~:
text=The%20relative%20strength%20of%20an,acid%20or%20base%20is%20weak
.
 Acids and bases - Riske Science pH from slide 22, https://
www.riskescience.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/11070410/ib_text_topic_8_part_3.pdf
 Electrical Conductivity from slide 22, https://
www.siyavula.com/read/za/physical-sciences/grade-12/acids-and-bases/09-acids-and-bases-01
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