INTRODUCTION TO

WORLD ARCHITECTURE
 Architecture first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and
means (available building material and attendant skills).
 As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and
practices, architecture became a craft.

 
 DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
 PRE HISTORIC ARCHITECTURE –

Cultural evolution of mankind- 3 stages

 Stone age
 Bronze age according to the use of materials & weapons
 Iron age.
• Earliest forms of dwellings of savage- rock caves.
• means of living were hunting, fishing and collection of food.
 Later started building huts of reeds and tents from bark, skin of animals.

settlement of different stages

.
 Once the problem of shelter & food has been solved, they started developing tombs, place of
worships etc..
 Megaliths – dolmens – that are built during these times.
- built of massive stones.
 Barrows and tumuli are grave mounds large in size.
 Cromlechs- circular ring of upright stones supporting the horizontal slabs.

Eg : stone henge – circular assemblage of huge stones

 located in London
Huge stones are arranged in two concentric circles.
Outer one with 33m dia.
Inner one with 25m dia.
Built for religious purpose.
 Some have deciphered stone henge as an ancient calendric device to keep track of solar & lunar
cycles.
 Other remains are upright monoliths – 19-20m ht
- 4.25 to 5m dia & weighing about 250 tonnes
- these are crude, rough and have no special features to mention their constructive development.
DEVELOPMENT OF HISTORIC ARCHITECTURE …
EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE… (around- 3000 BC- 100 AD).
• The development of historic architecture is a record of continuation of evolution, beginning with
the Egyptian architecture
• It is characterized by massive walls and strong closely spaced columns carrying beams to support
the flat roof.
• This style is known as Trabeated style ( beams and lintel instead of arches)
• The ancient Egyptians were quite obsessed with after life.
• Governing idea of Egyptian culture – mystery of death.
• Hence dead bodies were mummified and huge pyramids were erected by pharaohs to secure
immortality.
 GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITION…
• Egypt’s landscape varies from the strip of a fertile land in
the valley of the river Nile, to an arid region, to finally a
dessert.
• The lower northern part of the river meets the
Mediterranean Sea and in eastern part it extends up to the
red sea.
• Egypt is called the gift of Nile.
• Its green valley is the cradle of civilization.
• Hence the Egyptian Pharaohs founded their cities all along
the banks of the Nile both for the living and dead where we
generally find massive royal pyramids and priestly temples.

 GEOLOGICAL CONDITION…
 Rich clay was abundant from which sun dried bricks were
manufactured.
 Papyrus was grown in marshes and was used to make boats,
baskets and paper for scribes.
 Limestone was quarried from hills for the construction of
Pyramids.
 Sand stone was plenty with which temples and stone coffins
were built.
 Stone slabs were transported by placing them on sledges
made of large wooden beams and men pulled them along
with ropes.
 CLIMATIC FACTORS
 There are only two seasons, spring and summer.
 The climate is warm and bright. Due to the bright sunshine, interiors of buildings got sufficient light
through doors and roof slits.
 So they provided very few windows.
 The massive walls helped protect the interiors from intense heat and sun.
 It indirectly helped to provide a plain surface for ‘hieroglyph’ or pictorial representation of historical and
religious events.
 Except on the Nile delta, storm and rain are very rare so there was no problem of roof drainage. Hence flat
roofs were provided as pleasant outdoor for enjoyment of breeze and religious ceremonies.

 RELIGIOUS FACTORS
 The mysterious tradition and religious rites are reproduced in their architecture both in the form of tombs
and temples.
 It is remarkable to note that only the temples and tombs were built with stones
 All houses and even the palaces were built with unbaked bricks. (tomb was eternal abode and home was
temporary place.)
 The governing idea of religion of ancient Egyptians was their strong belief in future life.i.e. life after death.
o To secure immortality of the soul the pharaohs preserved their dead bodies in the royal pyramids.
o nobles in the mastabas – the modest tombs
o the poor were simply buried in pit grave without being mummified.
• Egyptians are the worshippers of Gods and heavenly bodies like
the sun, moon, stars and animals as embodiment of Gods.
• So they built many temples within great enclosures consisting of:
 a pillared court
 hypostyle hall – the dark mysterious chamber and
 a chapel.
• In the early history of Egypt there was no distinction between the
Gods and the almighty kings known as Pharaohs – the sons of the
sun.
• Pharaohs were carrying insignia i.e. signs of royalty, a false
beard, crown, sacred cobra brow ornament and scepters.

 SOCIAL FACTORS
 Egyptian literature has been preserved on papyrus plant and
tablets.
 It was rather social custom and manner to record the historical
events on the temples and social matters on tombs. Almost every
aspect of daily life was recorded.
 The pharaohs employed the prisoners of war and slaves for
agriculture, building construction.
After death the Pharaohs were considered to join the pantheon of Gods that watched over Egypt.
As a principle Pharaohs owned the whole country.
Pharaohs ruled the country assisted by high officials often often the family members led by the Vizier.
The administration was led by an army of scribes.
Almost everything which brought wealth to their lands was recorded by the scribes.
Egyptians paid much attention to harnessing the Nile.
They therefore studied astronomy, named and mapped the stars and predicted the movements of
heavenly bodies. They invented a 365 day calendar so as to predict the seasons and to know the months
of the Nile’s flooding.
They studied science to construct reservoirs, and canals to contain irreplaceable Nile waters.
They developed medicine and surgery.

HISTORICAL FACTORS

 Pharaohs consist of thirty dynasties.

 In dynasty I to X ( Ancient Kingdom 3000 – 2130)

• Pharaohs Menes, the first dynasty king, united the upper and lower Egypt and founded
Memphis, the capital city, on west bank of Nile.
• Civilization progressed with the development of art of writing and the hieroglyphic system
or pictorial representation of historic events
• The tombs of kings and great personages were ‘mastabas’ built in sun – dried bricks, similar
to houses and later on, royal pyramids were constructed.
Example: Great Pyramids of Pharaohs Cheops
Chephren, Mykerinos at Giza near Cairo
 In dynasty XI to XVII ( Middle Kingdom 2130 – 1580)

 Pharaos shifted their capital to Thebes.

 Pyramids were built in crude bricks in the interior and stone masonry at the outer facing.
 Amenemhat I founded the Great Temple of Amon at Karnak.
 Senusret I erected the Obelisk at Heliopolis.
 Many open fronted tombs were constructed at Beni Hasan.
 In dynasty XVIII to XXX ( New Kingdom 1580 – 332)
 Instead of pyramids and elaborate tombs many buildings were constructed at capital
Thebes.
 Amenophis III built the main part of the temple Luxor, brought grandeur to the temple at
Karnak by adding pylons and avenue of sphinxes.
 Amenophis IV (1364 – 347 B.C.) latter known as Akhenaten (He who is pleasing to Aten)
founded his new capital at Tell el – amarna.The site lay on right bank of Nile in between
Thebes and Memphis
• It was named as ‘Akhet – Aten’ the horizon of the Disc.
 He introduced the worship of only one God Aten ‘Disc of the sun’. He himself called the
Son of sun.
  The cult of Amon was disbanded including the other deities such as Osiris, Isis, Horus and Thoth.
 King Akhenaten, queen Nefertiti and one of their daughters present offerings to the Solar Disc – a
relief from the grand palace at Amarna.
 Akhenaten constructed the temple of Aten in a sacred enclosure measuring 300m x 800m.
 was open to daylight from one end to the other, as against the old traditional temples that were
enclosed within high girder walls.
 The relief works throw light on the grandeur of the sun-worshipping ceremony.
 The bizarre reign of Akhenaten lasted only 15 years.
 His introduction of worship of one God Aten caused unimaginable discontent among the priests
and a clash with the Amon – priesthood.
 And when the Pharaoh died, the priests destroyed the city of Amarna, and thus the old Gods took
their revenge.
 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURE

 Egyptian architecture which is essentially a columnar and trabeated (trab = beam) style was
employed on

I. Tombs
II. Temples.

 This is in strong contrast to the West Asiatic architecture, the nearest in age which was devoted to
the construction of palaces for Kings.
 Architecture consisted of massive walls, made of sun-dried mudbricks, the Nile mud being
reinforced by reeds, papyrus and palm-branch ribs.
 HOUSES

The houses were one or two storeys high, with a living hall in the centre to protect it from fierce heat
of the sun.

To increase stability, the walls were made broad at the base by providing a batter from outside but
keeping the inner side vertical for ordinary convenience.

The massive walls imparted simplicity, solidity and grandeur to the structure.

The massive walls are crowned with the characteristic gorge cornice or hollow and roll mouldings.

 TEMPLES

Egyptian temples based on rectangular plan are but a line of successive buildings, pillared court,
hypostyle hall and chapels, their roofs decreasing in heights behind imposing pylons (the
entrance gateways)
Pylons recall the Gopurams of Hindu temples.
The flat and massive walls of the temples and tombs were suited for incised relief work and
explanatory hieroglyphs

obelisks

Gorge cornice
Egyptian temples were fronted by obelisks or monolithic pillars and approached by a
row of sphinxes – mythical monsters – the structures with body of a recumbent lion
and head of a man or woman as the God or Goddess to protect the river Nile and the
vast monumental temple complexes which were usually oriented toward the Nile.

PYLON
 COLUMN CAPITAL

• Egyptians possessed great artistic instinct in using natural objects in their building construction
• The Egyptian columns have distinctive character and they exhibit their vegetable origin like the lotus
stalk, tied at intervals by bands.
• The capital appears like an inverted bell or like a lotus bud or a papyrus flower (now extinct).
• The columns were elaborated with painting and low relief carving
• The circular shaft was curved towards the base.
• The column with the shaft like papyrus plant stem combined with a lotus bud or a flower capital was a
sign of union of Upper and Lower Egypt

bell capita l

Palm cap ita l

vo lute capital
p ap y rus ca p ita l

b ud cap ita l
 ORNAMENTATION
In addition to lotus , papyrus and palm, they used grape, rope and feather as their motifs for ornamentation.
They were also advanced in the use of colours and they presented the schemes of decoration, mainly in blue, red and yellow.

The incised reliefwork on the wall was completed in different stages.

Lot us & papyrus Grape ornament

Rope & feather

First the surface was chiselled smooth and figures were drawn in red by the artist and corrected in black by the master artist. Incised wall at Karnak

The sculptor then deepened the lines or incised the outlines and finally the painter defined the figures with paints.
This pictorial representation thus completed expressed the story of their time in clear terms to the visitors.
TOMBS…
 Eternal home to Egyptians.
 Tombs were always built on the west bank of nile because they belived that there was a
mysterious kingdom of dead on western side where the sun went down
 3 types of tombs :

i. Mastabas
ii. Royal pyramids
iii. Rock – cut caves
 Mastabas were more modest tombs
 Pyramids were for royal people
 Poor were simply buried in pit graves

 MASTABAS
• Mastaba is an arabic word meaning a bench
• Notables were buried in mastabas
• Egyptians believed that everyone is born with the Ka- the spirit
• After death the deadman survived with Ka in his tomb
• The more beautiful it was the more happy his afterlife
• It was constructed in abroad pit below ground
• Superstructure was covered by a rectangular flat roof with sloping sides
 In the 1st dynasty, the grave had a small house with few offering rooms, the central one
containing the sarcophagus, such as Mastaba of Aha at Saqqara.
 In the IV th dynasty the tomb chambers were sunk deeply and connected with horizontal
passages and a vertical shaft usually cut from the north end of the superstructure, such as the
Mastabas at Giza
 In the Vth and Vith dynasties, the offering rooms became more elaborate, the walls carved with
coloured reliefs showing the important events from the life of the deceased
 Statues of the dead were often placed in a small room known as ‘Serdab’
 Images of the dead were carved on upright stone slab called ‘stele’ through which the ‘Ka’ was
believed to enter the chapel to feed on the offering and spiritually nourish for eternity.
The dead body of the king was preserved in the sacrophagus by mummification.

In Old Kingdom, preservation was done by warping bands of linen round the limbs of the dead body.

In New Kingdom the technique of embalming was improved. The lungs, liver and intestines were first removed from the body, before embalming.

Then the body was coated with a preservative like natron.

Linen and resin were filled in the cavities in such a way that the shrunken flesh was flattened out and thus shaped the dead to look more life – like.

Finally wigs and false eyes were placed.

 Typical examples

PYRAMIDS

These are built only for the Pharaohs as massive and impregnable tombs.
The early royal pyramids were similar to mastaba type from which the true pyramid is evolved.
The stages of development can be observed in the ‘stepped’ pyramid of Zoser at Saqqara (2778 B.C.)
The finest and most geometrically pure form was attained such as at Giza.

S tep p ed py ra mid of Hun i a t Med um

Ben t Py ra mid of Sen eferu a t D a sh ur

PYRAMIDS

The chief material used for the core is lime – stone.

Granite is mainly used for kings chamber and passages.

The entrance is usually from the north and sides were almost exactly aligned with the cardinal points of the compass.

The large – sized stone blocks were raised and turned by means of leavers only.

Pyramids as we see them today were not erected in solitary isolation, but they were as the main part of the building complex.

The pyramids were enclosed by high massive walls and within them were a temple, a chapel for offering, a small cause way over the canal to connect the valley building with the river Nile by which the royal funeral
procession usually arrived.

The Pyramid was built during the lifetime of the pharaoh for the preservation of his dead body so that it would attain immortality and would come back to life after sometime.

Hence they took much care and pain to hide and protect the tomb with its precious possessions by means of secret passages.

Many tried to carry away the golden bust of Tutankhamen’s mummy along with the precious possessions. But the great mystery is that all failed in their attempt and met with fatal death!
THE GREAT PYRAMID OF CHEOPS AT GIZA

This Pyramid is built outside the Memphis’s city limit near Cairo for Cheops also known as Khufu, the Second King of Fourth Dynasty.

The pyramidal base measures 230.5 x 230.5m and thrusts 146 m

The four faces form roughly equilateral triangles and their sides make an angle of 51.52 degrees with the ground.

The pyramid is built in solid stones with a casing of finally dressed Tura lime stones and the apex stone was once coated with gold.

Egyptians worked with such precision that ‘neither needle nor hair’ could be inserted at the joints of the lime stone casing blocks.

From north, an entrance is provided nearly at a height of 17m from the ground through which a small corridor is built.

The corridor descends at an angle of 26 degree well below the ground where a subterranean chamber or underground chamber is provided on the central axis.

An ascending corridor is constructed through the descending corridor nearly at ground level and the latter is sealed off due to certain changes in plan or to foil possible grave robbers.
 This ascending corridor rises at an angle of 30 degree, about 18m
along for a height of 21 m above the ground and connects to the
Queens chamber, which is also on central axis.
 Queens chamber also left incomplete and therefore closed perhaps
for the second change in plan for sake of the King’s Chamber.
 From here onward the ascending corridor is widened into a large
passage which is now well-known as the ‘Grand Gallery’. 5.8m
 At the end of the grand gallery is the King’s Chamber where, the
granite sarcophagus is placed.
 The Kings chamber 10.36m long, 5.23m wide and 5.8m high is
lined with granite
 Covered with five tiers of stone beams raising to a height of 21m
from the floor.
 Two air-shafts about 20x15cm are provided from outer faces of
5.23m
the pyramid to the Kings Chamber to serve as ventilation as well
as a free passage for the ‘Ka’ – the spirit of the deceased Pharaoh. Grand gallery
 Similar air shafts are provided in the Queens and underground sacrophagus
chambers
THE GREAT SPHINX OF CHEPHREN

It is a colossal monstercarved out of a single rock lying a little to the northwest of Valley Building of King Chephron
also known as Khafra.
It has the body of a Lion and head of Chephren, the king in fourth dynasty, wearing the royal head dress a false beard
and sacred cobre brow ornament.
The Pharaoh himself is represented as a mysterious protector of God gazing at the rising sun, half smiling.
The colossal statue is 20m high 3.17m long, and the face itself measures 4.12m.
The smallest toenail is large enough for a man to sit on.

OBELISKS
These are the large sized monoliths square in plan, tapering upwards and converging to a pyramidal end with a metal
capping at the summit, which was the sacred symbols of the Sun God of Heliopolis (the city of the sun
Obelisks were set up in pairs as a sacred symbol of the Sun God to dignify the temple entrances and to honor particular
Pharaohs with their names inscribed on them.
 TEMPLES…
 Rectangular in plan
 There are mainly two types of temples, one is mortuary temples for ministration to pharaohs and the other,
the cult temple for worship of Gods.
 Mortuary temple
• built for attending the rituals of the dead pharaohs.
• Developed within the enclosures of the royal tomb
• Constructed within great enclosures
• Consist of :
- series of rooms
- pillared court
- hypostyle hall (hall has a roof which is supported by columns)
- chapels (religious place of worship. Not a building but rather a dedicated chamber)
• With diminishing height behind the pylon
 Cult temple
• In cult temples, processions were unique features.
• During festivals shrines were taken out in procession on land or water and during such occasions, the
common people participated in large numbers.
• Were originally a rectangular court, which was entered from the narrow end
• Further end of court had a pavilion comprising of a vestibule and a sanctuary
• By the end of 18th centuary both the mortuary and cult temple had common features.
• Along the main axis which was not specifically oriented there was a walled open court with column around
leading to a covered structure comprising of a columned vestibule or hypostyle hall and a sanctuary behind
it.

Hypostyle hall

 THE TEMPLE OF KHONS – KARNAK ( 1198 B.C)

• Cult temple dedicated to moon god
• Rectangular in plan
• Fronted by obelisks and approached through an impressive avenue of sphinxes
• Posses large pylon or tall monumental gateway at the entrance followed by :
- pillared court
 - hypostyle hall
- sanctuary
- chapel one behind other
 Height of the temple goes on decreasing from front to rear
 Roof of the stone slab over the court was supported by 28 massive columns arranged on 3 sides by a double
colonnade leading the hypostyle hall

 Light was admitted through a clear storey window to the hypostyle hall
 4 columns in the centre of the hypostyle hall was taller
 Behind it was sanctuary where sacred boat of khons was kept
 At the end were chapels for carrying out religious rites
 THE GREAT TEMPLE OF AMON – KARNAK (1530-323
B.C)
 The temple of Amon – ra , the sun god , largest of all Egyptian
temples
 Built by several successive kings to glorify the sun god amon
 Rectangular plan – 366m x 110m
 6 pairs of pylons built one after other by successive pharaohs
 Great court – 103m x 84m
 Hypostyle hall – 103m x 52m
 Supported by 134 gigantic columns in 16 rows
 Light was admitted in the hypostyle hall through the clear- storey
window
 It is formed by increasing the height of 6 columns of the central
aisle
 Columns are 21m high , 3.58m dia with papyrus flower or bell
capital
 Side columns are little shorter 13 high and 2.67m in dia with
papyrus bud capital
 Wall surface, shafts of columns and architraves
are covered with incised relief works in different
colours
 Beyond the pylon 6 is the sanctuary
 There was a sacred lake where the boat of Amon
sailed on certain festivals
 Temple of Mut – his consort – lay to the south-
east of Amons temple connected by avenue of
pylons 7 to 10 and courts at successive intervals
 Temple khons , his son to the south east but was
less elaborate connected by impressive avenue
of sphinxes
 Temple comples enclosed by high wall
EARLY MESOPOTOMIAN
 GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITION
 Mainly spreads in the fertile land of 2 long rivers-
Euphrates & Tigris
 These two rivers run together for about 160kms from
their mouths, forming a fertile land with rich alluvial
soil.
 This fertile land is called as Mesopotamia
 This stretches from Persian Gulf and is known as
Fertile Crescent
 Its boundaries are : Arabian sea in south, Persian gulf
in east, Caucasus mountains in Armenia in north,
cities of Mediterranean in west.
 The hazard of irregular flooding due to melting of
snow in Tigris and Euphrates rivers made the people
to check inundation and manage the problem with a
network of canals, dykes and reservoirs.
 First to use ox-drawn plough & wheeled wagon
 GEOLOGICAL CONDITION
 Mainly spreads in the fertile land of 2 long rivers- Euphrates & Tigris
 Rich in alluvial soil
 Building material abundantly & cheaply available was the clay from which bricks were
manufactured.
 Bricks were either sun-dried or kiln-burnt depending on ordinary or important works & laid in
lime mortar but often in bitumen, a natural material also available in plenty.
 For decorative works, bricks glazed in different colors were used.
 Clay was also used to produce an exceptionally fine painted pottery.

 CLIMATIC CONDITION
 Extreme severe hot in summer & cold in winter.
 The rainfall is very small except in the northern districts.
 To protect from severe heat columned halls and porticoes were common in the Persian
buildings.
 The twin rivers Tigris & Euphrates produced flood hazard in summer due to the melting of
snows in the mountains of Armenia, so high platforms or dadoes were usually provided for
buildings to protect them from flood.
 They also harnessed the rivers in their courses with good network of canals.
 RELIGIOUS CONDITION
• Religion dominated their lives.
• Spells were created, magic was largely practiced.
• Priests wielded immense power in society due to their monopoly of writing.
• Gods were thought to reside in the height and to approach them temples were built on
elevated platforms usually provided with holy mountains ‘ZIGGURATS’ with the shrine at
the top.
• Each city had at least one Ziggurat. The Mesopotamian civilization is supposed to have left
some 30 Ziggurats.
• The Ziggurats were as impressive as the great pyramids of Egypt.

 SOCIALCONDITION
• The Mesopotamians made their lands fertile by means of fine net-work of canals, reservoirs,
harnessing their twin rivers which were causing disastrous floods.
• This necessitated the study of surveying and mathematics.
• For prediction of seasons the science of heavenly bodies i.e. astronomy came into being.
• They mapped the stars, named and studied the movement of planets and predicted eclipses of
the sun and the moon.
• The homes of the poor were simple with a central courtyard. Flooring consisted of paved
bricks or mud plaster.
• The rich had two storey with sleeping rooms, kitchens, wash rooms, servants quarters and a
family chapel.
• Craft was usually passed from father to son.
• The parents sold their sons usually to pay debts.
• Auctions of women were held every year.
• The Assyrians wrote on tablets of bricks which were more lasting than the Egyptian
perishable papyrus plant.
• Carpenters built carts and chariots with solid wheels.
• They also constructed ships from wood imported from Syria.
• They were good agriculturists.
• They ploughed their fields with wooden ploughshares where funnels were fixed through
which the seeds were sown instead of scattering them on field by hand.
• They were very good at pottery and metal casting.

 HISTORICALCONDITION
 The ancient civilization of West-Asiatic developed from 3000 B.C. to 330 B.C. in the
following period.
 A] Early Sumerian(3000 – 2000 B.C.)
 B] Old Babylonian(2016 – 1595 B.C.) –
 Neo Babylonian( 626 – 539 B.C.)
 C] Assyrian (1859- 626 B.C.)
 D] Persian (750 – 330 B.C.)
 SUMERIAN PERIOD
 Mesopotamia formed a fairly homogeneous culture even though it was not a unified nation
 From about 3000 BC onwards , many cities grew up in Sumer : Ur, Uruk , Eridu , Mari.
 In 2350 BC sudden change occurred, a semitic king Sargon of agade overthrew the rule of
uruk & conqured mesopotamia
 Sumerians became powerful under the 3 rd dynasty ruler Ur-Nammu
 He is considered as builder of astonishing energy and he constructed Ziggurat @ Ur.
 City of Ur – imperial capital of sumer – light of the known world.
 In 2350 BC city was destroyed by conquest – rebuilt by another king Amorite Yagit –Lim in
19th centuary BC and under his rule city became powerful city
 After that Yuhdun –Lim brought prosperity by constructing a network of canals for
irrigational purpose.
 Then he was assassinated & Zimri-Lim came to throne & built a famous palace.
 In 1759 BC king Hammurabi defeated Zimri –Lim & destroyed the city by fire.
 Another city Susa was evolved during 3700BC and its was there where writing was invented
& 1st written civilization began.
 BABYLON PERIOD
• Developed in the central region of Mesopotamia.
• At the beginning of 19th centaury BC Amorites, a nomadic people from Syrian desert founded
their 1st royal dynasty in Babylon.
• 5th king of 1st dynasty – Hammurabi – remembered for his famous code of laws – content was
delivered from Shamash , the god of justice.
• After that in 1612 BC Nebopolossar defeated assyrians & captured city of Nineveh & he is
called as Neo Babylon empire.

 ASSYRIAN PERIOD
• Originally Semitic Acadians.
• Warriors and huntsmen
• Founded their capital at Ashur – a city on the bank of Tigris
• Assyrian history commenced under the reign of Takutti – Ninurta I – who captured Babylon
• After that Ashurnasirpal II waged many wars and brought immense prosperty to the country
& shifted the capital from Ashur to Calah ( known as Nimrud).
• Main architectural development in this period was the construction of city of Khorsabad.

 PERSIAN PERIOD
• In about 1000 B.C. Aryans from Caucasus region settled in Medes and Persia.
• The founder of this Empire, Cyrus the Great captured Medians and Assyrians and there was a
new Persian upsurge.
• He also captured Sardis in 539 B.C.
• After conquering the Greek colonies of western Asia Minor, he next subjugated Babylon in
539 B.C. and gave freedom to 40,000 Jews and permitted them to return to Palestine to
rebuild the temple of Solomon.
• In 1595 BC Mursilis I king Hittis captured the city of Babylon.
• After his death his son Cambyses II extended the kingdom up to the borders of Egypt.
• In his reign the Persian architecture was greatly influenced by the Egypts splendid buildings
of the Thebes.
• He was succeeded by Darius I who founded two new capitals, one at Susa and the other at
Persepolis the ‘gateway of all nations’ where he constructed the splendid palace.
• He constructed arterial roads and planned to connect the Red sea and Nile by a canal.
• He standardized weights and measures.
• He brought immense prosperity and administered his provinces through governors called
‘straps’.
• Each province was required to pay tax in local produce, precious metals or in gold coinage.
• He carried the Persian arms as far as the river Indus in the east and that at Europe.

 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES…
• Hence the plains of Mesopotamia is rich in alluvial soil – they made use of clay in all their
buildings
• Also manufactured bricks
• Crude sun dried bricks – ordinary works
• Kiln burnt bricks – important works
• Bricks glazed in different colors – decorative works
• Polychrome ornamental brick is a special feature of this style – used in palace decoration
• Abundance of clay – construct imposing towers and artificial mountains – Ziggurat.
• In Babylon due to non Availability of stone brick construction led to the evolution of arches,
vaults and domes.
• Main entrance to palace courts was flanked
by great imposing towers – 24m to 28m high
• Is guarded by horned dragons
• High plinths/ dadoes – usually covered with
low relief work in colored glazed bricks.
 Assyrians produced mural decoration
 Gates of palace of sargon @ khorsabad –
flanked by imposing tower- gaurded by man
headed winged bull
 Walls- covered with alabaster slabs on which
they produced bas – relief
 Chief form of ornamentation – lotus flower
buds and bands of rosetts
 Temples & houses – rectangular plan – built
on high platform
 Persian architecture – columnar and they
used flat roofs of arches
 Persian columns- moulded base , fluted shaft
, decorative capital with continuous vertical
scrolls.
 Double walls were common
 Doorways & windows – square headed
 ZIGGURAT OF UR - NAMMU
 Erected by king Ur-Nammu
 Dedicated to moon god – Nanna
 Man made mountain . To bring people closer to god
 Considered as a link b/w earth & heaven
 Stood on rectangular plan – 60m x 40m
 Height – 17m
 Whole mass was solid, with a core of sun dried bricks and outer
covering of burnt bricks of 2.5m thick cemented with bitumen
 Main lines of ziggurat was built in slight curves to correct illusion
 It had 3 terraces
 Ascent was made from one of the larger sides by 3 steep stair
ways:
 2 at the sides & 1 in the middle & all meets at a common landing
 These terraces were once hung with plants which gave rise to the
HANGING GARDENS of Babylon.
 At the top stood the temple dedicated to moon god where the
sacred ceremony took place annually
 There was a large courtyard around its base & is surrounded by
shrines for cult worship
 Temple had an inner courtyard surrounded by a number of rooms
 There was also a palace within the courtyard for the king & his
family members.
 ETRUSCANS AND EARLY ROMANS
 ARCHITECTURAL CHARCTERISTICS…
 Temples had Greek influence.
 Mostly rectangular in plan.
 Built on raised podium.
 Podium was made of timber mud brick and terracotta.
 Wide spread roof to throw out water.
 Columns were slender and spacing more wider.
 Town planning in grid iron pattern.
 They had broad streets ,good water supply and drainage systems.
 Houses were built with sun dried bricks & wooden roof covered with terra-cotta tiles
 Introduced radiating arch
 City walls – cyclopean style but polygonal works was sometimes used
 Mortar was not used
 Invented new order of architecture - Tuscan order
 ORIGINS OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

 The Romans borrowed heavily from two cultures that they conquered – the Etruscans
and the Greeks
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE – ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

• Columnar and trabeated style of Greeks.

• Use of lime concrete.
• Extended use of vaulting.
• They could span large spaces.
• They used various types of vaults
 VAULT - a structural member consisting of an arrangement
of arches, usually forming a ceiling or roof.
 Semi circular or the barrel vaults over rectangular structures.
 Cross vaults --- formed by the intersection of two semi
circular vaults.
 Cupolas or hemispherical dome used over circular structure.
 BARREL OR “TUNNEL” VAULT
• These vaults require buttressing to counter-act the
downward thrust of weight.
 GROIN VAULT
• Also called as cross vault
• Needs less buttressing.
• MULTI GROIN VAULTS
 A series of groin vaults can have open lateral arches.
 Windows that allow light into the interior of churches.
 These concrete windows are fireproof [an important
consideration since many early churches were burnt!]
• ARCHES
MOULDINGS…..
 Greeks – single storied buildings but Romans constructed multi
storied buildings – frequently ornamented
 Utility buildings– like bridges, aqueducts etc.
 Their plans were complex in appearance, hidden in design and
displayed an impression of vastness.
 Had great engineering skill and constructive ability.
 Took many laborious years to compete every building – Hence it
is said Rome was not built-in a day.
 Arches, vault and dome were the key notes to the system of roman
construction.
 Use of marble mosaic in composite walls , vaults, and in different
patterns for floors.
 Use of niche.
 Concrete vaults were lightened by coffers.
 Finishes--- lime plaster outside and marble stucco inside.
 Use of white marble.
 To the three orders of Greek the Romans added two more orders.–
Hence the five orders
 DORIC
 IONIC
 CORINTHIAN
 COMPOSITE
 TUSCAN
• THE ROMAN DORIC ORDER

 Example -- theatre of Marcellus, Rome having a

semi circular plan.

 COLUMN
 It is 8 times lower diameter
 Base is ½ D – consist of a simple square block
torus with a convex profile.
 Intercolumniation – 2 ¾ D
 Shaft circular in plan and diminishes to ¾ to2/3
dia
 at the top.
 Consists of 16 to 20 flutes with a sharp arris
 Capital is 1/2D
• Consist of abacus & echinus with a necking b/w
annulets and astragal
 Entablature (2D)

CORNICE ¾ D
ARCHITRAVE ½ D FRIEZE ¾ D • Either Mutular&
• Consists of Tania, • Consist of Triglyphs denticular
regulaand guttae & metops • Projects beyond
• Lies in the same • Channels in the frieze
plane of column Triglyphs –
rectangular @ top
• Metops contain
sculpture of hunting,
fighting etc…
• THE ROMAN IONIC ORDER
 Example -- Temple of Fortuna Virilis – having a rectangular
plan
 COLUMN
 It is 9 times lower diameter
 Base is ½ D – has upper & lower torus separated by fillet &
Scotia
 Intercolumniation – 3D
 Shaft circular in plan and 5/6 dia. at the top.
 Consists of 20 flutes separated by fillets – 1/3 rd the width of
flute
 Ionic order distinguished by its volute capital.
 Capital is 1/2D.
 The roll is carved with leaves
 Rosette is engraved in the circle forming the eye of volute
 Above it – echinus and shallow abacus
 Entablature (2 ¼ D)

CORNICE 7/8 D
ARCHITRAVE 5/8 D FRIEZE 6/8 D
• Contain cymatium & corona
• Consists of 4 to 5 • Flat and continuous
• Projects equal to its height
raised slabs
projecting one • Cymatium is decorated with
above the other. acanthus leaves
• Corona is large and consist
of 3 or 4 horizontal slabs
projecting one above the
other
• THE ROMAN CORINTHIAN ORDER
 Example -- Temple of castor and pollux– having a
rectangular plan
 COLUMN
• It is10 times lower diameter
 Base is ½ D
 Intercolumniation –2 2/3 D
 Shaft circular in plan and 5/6 dia. at the top.
 Consists of 24 flutes or it is left plain.
 Capital is 7/6 D
 Capital resembles that of inverted bell consisting of two rows
of acanthus leaves.
 First row – above the astragal of shaft – 8 small acanthus
leaves.
 Upper part – 8 caulicoli each surmounted by a calyx- from this
16 volutes arises.
 Entablature (2 ½ D)

CORNICE 1 D
ARCHITRAVE 3/4 D FRIEZE 3/4 D
• Consists of 3 facias
• Beam like brackets -
• Consists of human modillions
or animal sculptors
• Enriched with
acanthus scroll
• THE ROMAN COMPOSITE ORDER
 Example -- -- Trimphal Arches
 COLUMN
 It is10 times lower diameter
 Base is ½ D
 Consists of square blocks, upper and lower torus moldings
separated by scotia and fillets.
 Intercolumniation –2 2/3 D
 Circular Shaft consists of 24 flutes separated by fillets
 Capital is composed of ionic and Corinthian orders
 Capital – 2 rows , each of 8 acanthus leaves.
 Capital is 7/6 D
 Richly decorated entablature
 Entablature (2 ½ D)

CORNICE 1 D
ARCHITRAVE 3/4 D FRIEZE 3/4 D
• Supported by dentils
• Consists of 2 facias • Richly ornamented
• THE ROMAN TUSCAN ORDER
 Example -- taken from the colonnade which leads to st. Peters
rome.
 COLUMN
 Invented by Etruscans.
 Simplified form of Greek Doric order.
 Column height is 7D
 Base ½ D – consists of torus and a square block.
 Unfluted circular shaft
 Capital ½ D- consisting of a square abacus and ovolo echinus
 Entablature (1 3/4 D)

ARCHITRAVE ½ D FRIEZE 1/2 D CORNICE 3/4 D

 This order is plain and consists of no ornamentation.

 The moldings are simple which consists of straight lines and circular arcs.
 This order lacks refinement when compared to other roman orders.
 Temples
 are both rectangular as well as circular
 In rectangular type the temples are usually twice as
long as its width with a proto-type portico in front
 Examples of rectangular temples – temple of Mars,
Venus, Saturn etc.
 Examples of circular temples –temple of Vesta &
Pantheon.
 THE PANTHEON , ROME
 Completed by Agrippa
 Circular in plan – 44m dia
 Colonnaded portico in front
 The octa - style portico is 33.5m x18m in centre
forms the entrance to the temple.
 Monolithic granite columns are of Corinthian order
 Columns are unfluted ,1.5m dia and 14m high.
 Entablature is 3.35m high
 Portico contain niches in which statues of Agrippa
and Augustus are erected.
 Bronze doors once plated with gold.
 Rotunda – circular in plan.
 Internal dia as well as height – 44m rests on a
circular foundation 4.5m deep.
 Consists of 8 exedrae, one of which forms the
entrance , others contain the statues of gods.
 2 monolithic marble columns 10.6m high are
present in the exedrae.
 The columns have Corinthian capital which
support the entablature.
 A hemispherical dome covers the circular

building.
 The coffers in the hemispherical dome not

only provide ornamentation but also

reduces the weight of the dome.
 Excellent example of Romans skilful
construction and the right use of materials for
the right purpose.
 A circular unglazed opening is present for
lighting of the building. It is 8.23 m dia.
exerdae

ROTUNDA
44m
 THE FORUM
 Similar to agora of Greeks.
 Usually situated at the intersection of 2 main
streets.
 Around this forum law courts and public
buildings were placed.
 It was also the site of the city's primary
religious and civic buildings, among them the
Senate house, records office, and basilica.
 Often used as open air assembly or a market
etc.
 There were clear indications of town
planning.
 Example: forum of Trajan, forum of Caesar,
forum of Augustus….
 The Forum of Trajan was dedicated in AD
112, and the Column of Trajan
commemorates military victories as well as
providing public buildings for meeting,
shopping, and conducting business. It was the
most comprehensive forum yet built by an
Emperor.
 MODEL OF ROMAN FORUM
AMPHITHEATRES
 Used for training warriors and to hold contest
between men and animals.
 They were elliptical in shape with rising tires of
seats.
 The earliest known amphitheatre(75 B.C.) is at
Pompeii.
 And the grandest, Rome's Colosseum or
coliseum. (A.D.70-82).
COLOSSEUM
 Elliptical in plan
 Measures 190m x 155m
 The Colosseum in Rome is best

known for its multilevel system

of vaults made of concrete.
 Also known as flavian amphi-theatre.
 Built by emperor Vespasian in 70 A.D. and finished by the emperor
Domitian in 82 A.D.
 External facade 48m high which was divided into 4 storeys.Each storey
had 80 external arch openings.
 The entrance was from the ground floor to various tiers of seats.
 Main arena was oval shaped - 87x55m.

& it was enclosed by a wall of 4.5m high.

 Behind it was the podium– were

emperor, generals –upper class sat.

 Beyond the podium was the auditorium

to seat 50,000 spectators.

 Lowest level –dens for wild animals and for gladiators.
 Materials used for construction --- lava for foundation, tufa and bricks
for walls ,pumice stone for vaults , marbles for columns and seats.
 In the upper class sections of the colosseum spectators sat on marble,
while in the lower class section they sat on wood.
SCHEMATIC SECTION
•There were lifts for getting contestants and equipment up to
the stage floor.
•Below the floor was a large service area which contained
cages for animals, a plumbing and drainage system.
•Plumbing and drainage system could wash away the blood
or create an ‘inland sea’ for mock naval battles.

Romans used the orders skillfully.

1st storey 12.4m high – Doric column.
2nd storey 11.8m high – slender and lighter ionic
column.
3rd storey 12m high –Corinthian columns.
Last storey 11.8m high –Corinthian plasters.
Columns were superimposed.
 The oval seating area is supported by a complex system of
concrete barrel vaults.
 The structure had 76 numbered entrances. It is held up by
the heavier outer rings which buttress the structure’s
outward thrust.
 The coliseum to date is one of the most famous tourist
attractions and is one of the finest examples of Roman
architecture.
MAYAN CIVILIZATION • Located in Mexico in the Yucatan peninsula, Guatemala ,
and in parts of Belize and Honduras.
• The Mayan civilization was located around
• The earliest phase of Maya civilization began around 3000
central America, from the north Central right
BC, a time when ancient societies were emerging in Egypt,
down to southern Mexico.
China, India, Mesopotamia, and Assyria.
• Elements associated with the Mayan
• The Maya civilization is the oldest of the two civilizations
civilization have been found to date back to
(Maya, Inca) .
1000 BC.
• The Mayan civilization created many cities such as Tikal,
• Like in our world, the Mayan civilization had
copan, uxmal, old chichen, and labna.
different periods including:
• The population of these cities often reached 20,000
 Mid-Preclassic / Mid-Formative (600
inhabitants.
BC) During the Mid-Preclassic period, some of
• Large, complex Maya sites have been dated to 500-200 BC.
the earliest Maya complexes had been
• The ancient Maya were living in magnificent cities of stone
constructed.
with pyramids and wide plazas decorated with intricate
 Classic period (250 – 900 AD) The later
carvings.
Classic period witnessed the urban center
• The Mayas developed the most accurate calendars known,
construction and the recording of monumental
mastered astrology and mathematics, and produced
inscriptions.
exquisite art on ceramics and murals.
Post-classic period (900 AD – 1519)
• Certain constructions using monolithic stone blocks, and
When the Spanish arrived in 1519, most of the
buildings whose structure accurately mirrors solar, lunar and
centers had substantively declined.
stellar phenomena, still remain a mystery.
• The Maya people had not disappeared, neither
at the time of the Classic period nor with the
arrival of Spanish conquistadores.  The Maya
persist in contemporary Mesoamerican societies
maintaining a distinctive set of traditions and
beliefs, despite adoption of Roman Catholicism.
 ARCH-ASTRONOMY
 The ancient Maya, attempted to connect religion, astronomy and architecture in an attempt to link
their knowledge of the heavens with the Earth.
 The result is that their cities and temples were astronomical instruments, giant diagrams designed to
join man with space-time.
 The Maya carefully oriented, designed and constructed their urban centers in accordance with what
they considered to be the orbits of the stars; they thought stars were gods.
 Their cities were timepieces that served—with amazing exactitude—as giant stone calendars for civic,
religious and agricultural purposes.
 To achieve this, the Maya measured the rising and setting sun during the solstices and equinoxes, as
well as its passing through the zenith.
 They recorded the cardinal points and data related to other stars, the Moon, planets (mainly Venus).
 Today these are being studied by anthropologists and archaeologists; working to reveal the secrets of
this geometric and mathematical language, and its relation to the cosmos.
 COMPONENTS AND SYMBOLISM
 The Maya designed buildings to be utilitarian as well as symbolic, and constructed them as
giant machines meant to maintain and focus divine energy.
     Further, the temples contained geodesic data. For example, most of them had nine colonnades,
exactly nine layers or levels, and nine steps, all of which represented the nine planes of the celestial
existence. This numerology was meant to elevate the ceremonial habitats of the deities—the temples,
that is—to their zenith. The pyramid of Kukulcan (the Maya plumed serpent god) at Chichen Itza,
Mexico, symbolizes this. It has the exact number of elements that correspond to calendaric
measurements.
 THE   MAYAN VAULT
The Maya vaults served as roofs for tombs, chambers and
other enclosures.
 They were constructed with consecutive lines of stones
stacked vertically and ending in a cap.
 It is called a "false arch" because the cap is not a wedge.
 Since the capstone does not make the structure rigid, the
Maya could not develop spacious interiors in their
temples.
 ASSOCIATED ELEMENTS
 RED HANDS. Some Maya temples have natural-sized hands painted
on the walls, alone or in groups. These designs are known as kab-ul,
which means celestial hands, creator and miracle maker. They are
attributed to Itzamna, lord of the skies and the king of all of the gods.
 PHALLUS. The phallus symbol is associated with human fertility
rites and Mother Earth's fecundity. They are not very common, having
mostly been found in the Puuc region and in city of Chichen Itza,
Mexico. The phallus are stone sculptures placed in the internal walls
of temples or on raised external spaces. 

• CHAC MOOL - It is believed that they are enigmatic

figures in impossible positions (their backs are bent
unnaturally) – held some kind of object or offering in their
hands. For the most part, the statues have been found in
Chichen Itza. They originated in the Toltec culture. The
Toltecs, people from the high plains, arrived in the Mundo
Maya during the Post Classic period (A.D. 900-1500).
• ALTARS - Altars were carved stone monuments associated
with stelae and open spaces, as well as with the interior of the
temples. They have been found in many different shapes &
sizes, often carved with stories, which depict historical and
mythological events. In some cases, altars are thought to have
served as thrones for the rulers.
 STELAE. Stelae are carved stone monuments of in bas relief.
 They were placed alone or grouped in large, wide plazas in front of the pyramids.
 Usually the stelae featured the carved figure of a ruler, with hieroglyphs referring to the monarch
and his dynasty, and historical dates.
 The stelae were carved at a predetermined time based on a cycle of years, which has made them a
useful tool in determining dates for the history of the archaeological site where they were
discovered.
 Generally the stelae were only carved on one side, though occasionally they were also carved on the
lateral sides.
 There are cases, at sites like Copan, Honduras and Quirigua, Guatemala, where large stelae
(reaching up to four meters in height) have been found.

Izapa, Xultún, Yaxha, Naranjo, Bonampak,

México. Guatemala. Guatemala. Guatemala. México.
 MURAL PAINTINGS. There are not many Maya
temples decorated with murals. The most significant
buildings, which have mural paintings are in the cities of
Uaxactun, Mulchic, Chichen Itza, Tulum and Bonampak.
 The murals at Bonampak (illustration below) are
considered to be the most refined and of the highest quality.
 Murals were painted in frescoes, using a rich palate of
colors, which were made from a mineral and vegetable
base, using regional clay and plants. The Maya blue, stands
out for its luminosity. Generally, the murals represent
episodes of war and of religious ceremonies. The murals
also include characters identified as rulers. They are an
invaluable source of information about the rituals, outfits
etc.
 FACADE ELEMENTS
 Designers integrated miniature lattices riddled with
symbolic snakes, images of animals, flowers and humans.
Stone constructions were commonly covered with stucco,
which was generally painted red. The temple's crests were
constructed with relatively thin walls, which gave the
buildings more height, and therefore more presence. It is
also thought that these crests may have served as astral
points for ancient astronomers. To the ancient Maya, all of
these elements—some of which today might look only
decorative—formed a mosaic of sacred symbol
ONE OF THE IMPORTANT CITY
OF MAYAN CIVILIZATION

CHICHEN ITZA

SITE PLAN OF CHICHEN ITZA

 THE CITY OF CHICHEN ITZA

• EL CASTILLO
• THE GREAT BALL COURT.
• EL CARACOL OBSERVATORY.
• JAGUAR TEMPLE.
• CENOTE.
• THE TEMPLE OF WARRIORS
• 1000-WARRIORS-COLUMNS
 CHICHEN ITZA
 Chichen Itza was built in the state of Yucatan in Mexico.
 This city was about six square miles in size and was a religious center, built in the typical Mayan style
between the seventh and tenth centuries AD.
 The only source of water in the region around the site is from wells (cenotes) formed by sinkholes in
limestone formations.
 Two big cenotes on the site made it a suitable place for the city and gave it its name,
from chi(“mouths”), chen (“wells”), and Itzá, the name of the Maya tribe that settled there.
 EL CASTILLO OR THE PYRAMID OF KUKULKAN
A PLAN OF EL CASTILLO OR THE PYRAMID OF KUKULCAN

• El Castillo is centered in the Great

Plaza, the northern part of Chichén Itzá.
• It is a large step pyramid dedicated to
the deity Kukulkan, the feathered serpent.
• El Castillo has nine terraces and four
staircases.
• A large square temple with four
doorways sits atop its highest terrace.
• It towers 30 meters above the Great
Plaza (24m up to platform +6m height of
the temple) with a base of 55 meters on
four sides. The temple at the top of the
pyramid is 6 m high, 13.42 m wide, and
16.5 m long.
• It is made of cut limestone blocks.
•El Castillo has 91 steps on each side for
a total of 365steps, equal to the no.of
days in the year under the solar calendar.
•The 2 equinoxes & 2 solstices each year
occur at 91-day intervals
• At sunset on the equinoxes (spring and fall), a CHAC MOOL &JAGUAR
special phenomenon can be observed at El THRONE INSIDE EL CASTLO
Castillo - the interplay of light and shadow from
the sun's position make it appear that a serpent is
slowly snaking down the balustrades of the
staircase.
•This was likely designed as a visual cue for the
proper time to do agricultural ceremonies,
harvest, and plant new crops.
•El Castillo's design relates to the Mayan
calendar.
• Each of the four faces incorporates a broad,
steep staircase consisting of 91 steps that ascends
to the top platform.  JAGUAR THRONE INSIDE EL CASTLO
•Counting the top platform as an additional
step gives a total of 365 steps: 1step for each day
of the year.
•The staircases rise at an angle of 45 degrees to
the horizontal, while the average inclination of
the stepped pyramid itself is 53.3 degrees. The
faces of the individual steps are sloped at a
greater angle, approximately 73 degrees.
•The nine main platforms of the pyramid are
thought to represent the 18 months of the
haab, and the 52 panels represent the number of
years it takes for a calendar round date to recur.
 STEEP STEPS LEADING TO
THE TEMPLE ABOVE

ENTRANCE TO INTERIOR - UNDER

EL CASTILLO STEPS

FEATHERED SERPENT, BOTTOM OF "EL

CASTILLO" STAIRCASE
 ROUND PYRAMID , UXMAL

•Located in the ancient, Pre-Columbian city

of Uxmal, Mexico.
• also referred to as the House of the Dwarf 
• The pyramid is the tallest and most recognizable
structure in Uxmal.
• This Pyramid is very ancient to the Mayans.
•The exact height of the Pyramid of the Magician is in
dispute and has been reported as tall as 131 feet and as
low as 90.5 feet
• The accepted median height is 115 feet, with the base
measuring approximately 227 by 162 feet.
 ROUND PYRAMID , UXMAL

•The pyramid was first built around 569A.D. 

• It was built over five times.
•The last addition, the house of the magician at the
top, was added in 900 A.D.
•The 90 steps leading to the top are very steep,
resulting in a 60 degree slope.
•The doorway into the temple on the top aligns
with the setting sun on April 12 and August 31.
•The pyramid, over which the actual temple
stands, has a peculiar elliptical form.  
•Two staircases lead to the top of the pyramid.
•The Eastern staircase, the wider, has a small
temple along the way that cut the stairway in half.
•The second access stair, the Western, faces the
Nunnery Quadrangle and is decorated with friezes
of the rain god Chaac.
THE GREAT BALL COURT AT CHICHEN ITZA
•It is the largest ballcourt in ancient Mesoamerica.
•The mayans were great sportsmen and built huge ballcourts to
play their games.
•The great ballcourt of chichén itzá is 545 feet long and 225
feet wide (166 by 68 meters) overall.
•On each side of the field are walls that rise more than 7m
• It has no vault, no discontinuity between the walls and is
totally open to the sky.
•The sides of the interior of the ballcourt are lined with
sculpted panels depicting teams of ball players.
•Each end has a raised "temple" area.
• A whisper from end can be heard clearly at the other end 500
feet away and through the length and breath of the court.
• The sound waves are unaffected by wind direction or time of
day/night.
• Archaeologists engaged in the reconstruction noted that the
sound transmission became stronger and clearer as they
proceeded.
• In 1931 Leopold Stokowski spent 4 days at the site to
determine the acoustic principals that could be applied to an
open-air concert theater he was designing. Stokowski failed to
learn the secret.
•To this day it has not been explained.
•Embedded near the top of each wall at the center is a stone
hoop engraved with intertwining feathered serpents.
ELCARACOLOBSERVATORY
•The Maya knew the exact length of the yearly solar cycle
and that it measured at 365.24 days.
•The Chichen Itza Observatory or "El Caracol" (The
Snail) was dedicated to the study of astronomy and it
consists of a tower erected on two rectangular platforms.
•The Observatory's name is derived from the unusual
stairway inside resembling a snail shell.
• From the top of the tower these amazing astronomers
made observations of the stars with the naked eye and
recorded their movements.
 THE JAGUAR TEMPLE •Jaguar-shaped thrones (associated with city leaders) were
found inside and are still on display. Hence the name.
•Inside the temple, many of the wall decorations still show
traces of their original colors.
•This temple and the structure around it form one wall of
Chichen Itza's ball court.

CENOTE
•There is no fresh water source in the northern
Yucatan. No fresh lakes, and no rivers.
•There are however sinkholes (subterranean and
exposed) which collect rain water.
•These are called cenotes and the Mayans made sure
there were enough around their major cities to
provide water.
•There happens to be a sacred cenote also which was
rather than being a water source, it was a place of
sacrifice.
 THE TEMPLE OF WARRIORS
•Location- northern part of the city, northeast of el castillo.
• Like El Castillo, the Temple of Warriors was constructed
over an older temple.
•Today there are three thick tiers stacked on top of a
thinner stone base with a temple on top.
• It is 10 meters tall and 40 meters wide and a prime
example of the Toltec influence in Maya architecture.
•There are some 200 squared columns at the base of the
temple's main stairway.
•Each side of each column has a carved depiction of a
Toltec warrior.
•These columns once were painted and some of the
pigment is still faintly visible today.
•There are also several rows of columns that fill the
colonnades on the south of the temple, prompting the
name Plaza of a 1000 Columns. 
•A single, wide staircase climbs up the front face of the
temple and at the top sits a chacmool .