LEARNING

change is behaviour (overt and covert)

-should be relatively permanent
- because of practice or past
experience.
Learning how to ride a bicylce
learning science

06/27/2023 Learning 1
 Learning is an ability to respond
differently to different situations.
Due to the capacity to learn, our earlier

behavior is changed by the later

behavior.

06/27/2023 Learning 2
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING PROCESS
i. Learning involves all those experiences and trainings of an
individual (right from the birth) that helps to produce
change in one’s behaviour.
ii. Learning is a sort of ability to respond differently to
different situations because of past experience.
iii. Learning is a general integration of behaviour.
iv. Learning is an outcome of the interaction of the organism
with his/her environment. It establishes new relationship
between a stimulus and a response.
v. Learning is universal and continuous.
vi. Learning leads to bring change in the behaviour but it does
not necessarily mean that these changes always bring
improvement or development in the positive direction.
vii. Learning does not include the changes in behaviour on
account of sensation adaptation, maturation, drugs, illness
and fatigue.
06/27/2023 Learning 3
 Learning is viewed as:

“To gain knowledge or understanding of, or skill in,

by study, instruction, or investigation.”

1. Learning does not always involve a ‘gain’ or benefit;

for example, prejudices, and maladaptive behaviors
like procrastination.

2. Learning is not always intentional. “Incidental

learning” occurs without intent or instructions to
remember the information later

3. Changes produced by learning can be positive as well

as negative

06/27/2023 Learning 4
 Practically all organizational behaviour is either
directly or indirectly affected by learning.

For example a worker's skill, a manger's

attitude, a staff assistant's motivation, a sales
person’s optimism and confidence are all
learned.

With the application of learning process and

principles, employee's behavior can be
analyzed and managed to improve their
performance.
06/27/2023 Learning 5
 Learning can be defined as any
relatively permanent
change in behavior (overt or covert) as
a result of practice or experiences
and learning itself.

Learning how to ride a bicycle.

Learning how to read.
06/27/2023 Learning 6
Learning has three basic components:

• Learning is a change in behavior. Relatively

permanent: temporary changes due to fatigue,
drugs, illness are not learning.

It is a change that takes place through practice or

experiences. Learning can result from vicarious as
well as from direct experiences.

Changes due to growth or maturation are not

learning.
06/27/2023 Learning 7
 Models of learning
• Behavioristic theories (primarily focuses
on overt behaviour and Stimulus and
response association):
 The Classical Conditional Theory
 Operant Conditional Theory

• Cognitive Theories (mental processes as

the major cause for behaviour)
 Observational learning
 Insight Learning
06/27/2023 Learning 8
 The Classical Conditional Theory

• The classical behaviorist, Ivan Pavlov, Russian

Physiologist and John B. Watson, an
American psychologist attributed learning to
the association or connection between
stimulus and response (S-R).

06/27/2023 Learning 9
 Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a form of learning

where two stimuli events become associated
in such a way that the occurrence of one
stimulus reliably predicts the occurrence of
response.

06/27/2023 Learning 10
• Stimulus: any object/situation that causes
organism to act in specific way.

06/27/2023 Learning 11
• A stimulus that initially does not elicit a
particular response gradually acquires a
capacity to elicit that response as a result of
repeated pairing with a stimulus that can elicit
a response.

• Pavlov's theory is based on a famous series of

experiment to teach dogs to salivate in
response to ringing of a bell conducted in the
early 1900.
06/27/2023 Learning 12
 Basic terms in classical Conditioning
• Unconditioned Stimulus (natural) (UCS): A stimulus that
naturally elicits the response without any learning. In Pavlov’s
experiment, food (meat powder) is unconditioned stimulus
(UCS).
• Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural unlearned
response to an unconditioned stimulus such as salivation as a
response of food in Pavlov’s experiment.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The artificial stimulus that is
paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is the
conditioned stimulus (CS). In Pavlov’s experiment, BELL is
conditioned stimulus (CS).
• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned or acquired response
to a conditioned stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiment, salivation to
bell is conditioned response. Conditioned response is also
called
06/27/2023
conditioned reflex. Learning 13
Feel happy when Mama comes home

1. CS (Scooter)  No response
2. US (attractive person)  UR (happy)

3. CS (scooter) + US (attractive person)  UR

(happy)

4. CS (scooter)  CR (happy)

06/27/2023 Learning 14
06/27/2023 Learning 15
 Classical conditioning experiment
• Pavlov's classical conditioning can be explained by the
following pat­tern, which Pavlov used in his experiment on
dog.
1. Natural or unconditioned Natural or unconditioned
stimulus (U.C.S.) Food response (U.C.R.) Salivation
2. Conditioned stimulus (C.S.) Bell - No response
3. C.S. (Bell) 5 seconds interval - Unconditioned response
• U.C.S. (Food) U.C.R. (salivation)
Condition 3 is repeated for several trials until an association
is established between bell and food (C.S. & C.R.)
• 4. C.S. (Bell) - C.R. (Salivation)
06/27/2023 Learning 16
 Sound of bike  doing homework
• Conditioned stimulus (CS)  No response
Sound of Bike  No response

• Unconditioned stimulus (US)  Unconditioned response (UR)

Father comes from office to home  Child alert and starts doing
home work
• CS + US  UR
Sound of Bike + Father comes from office to home  Child alert
and starts doing home work
• CS  CR
Sound of Bike  Child alert and starts doing
06/27/2023 Learning 17
 Figure: An organizational example of classical conditioning
06/27/2023 Learning 18
 Principles of classical conditioning
Pavlovian conditioning
There are five laws of classical conditioning
• Acquisition
• Stimulus generalization
• Stimulus Differentiation
• Extinction
• Spontaneous recovery

06/27/2023 Learning 19
 Acquisition
• The acquisition phase is the initial learning of
the conditioned response—for example, the
dog learning to salivate at the sound of the
bell.

• Several factors can affect the speed of

conditioning during the acquisition phase.
Main are:
- order (the conditioned stimulus (the bell) should
come before the unconditioned stimulus )
- timing of the stimuli ( about half a second)
06/27/2023 Learning 20
 Stimulus generalization

Once the CR is established, it becomes likely to

be aroused by similar stimuli other than the
stimulus aroused in training.

Is realization that similar stimulus have similar

properties.

06/27/2023 Learning 21
 Stimulus Differentiation

Stimulus differentiation is the process of learning

to make one response to one stimulus and a
different response or no response to another
stimulus.

Realization that different stimulus have different

properties.

06/27/2023 Learning 22
 Extinction or
Experimental extinction

Once a CR is set up, if one goes on repeating it

without giving reinforcement, it tends to be
extinguished

The process by which conditioned response is

weakened and finally extinguished.

06/27/2023 Learning 23
 Spontaneous recovery

A complete or permanent extinction of CR is

not possible. The experimentally extinguished
response may reappear again after a period.
This is called spontaneous recovery.

06/27/2023 Learning 24
 Significance of classical conditioning
Applicable in several learning conditions

• Controlling behavior -the bed wetting behavior

in children can be corrected .

• Development of emotions and attitudes are

influenced by classical conditioning procedure

06/27/2023 Learning 25
• Treat phobias and other unwanted behaviors, such as
alcoholism and addictions.

• To treat phobias of specific objects, the therapist gradually and

repeatedly presents the feared object to the patient while the
patient relaxes.

• Through extinction, the patient loses his or her fear of the

object.

• In one treatment for alcoholism, patients drink an alcoholic

beverage and then ingest a drug that produces nausea.

• Eventually they feel nauseous at the sight or smell of alcohol

and stop drinking it. The effectiveness of these therapies varies
depending on the individual and on the problem behavior
SEE: A new approach to teen Crime, Baron(2005).Psychology,p-181.
06/27/2023 Learning 26
 More Examples
• Classical conditioning: Turning principles
into actions (Applications)

1) Classical conditioning explains many

emotional responses- Happiness, excitement,
anger, and anxiety—that people have to
specific stimuli

–
06/27/2023 Learning 27
• Despite the theoretical possibility of the widespread
applicability of classical conditioning such areas as
modern marketing, most contemporary learning
theorist agree that it represents only a very small
part of total human learning.

• Classical conditioning only explains reflective

behaviors these are involuntary responses that are
elicited by a particular identifiable stimulus.

• Most behavior in organization is emitted rather than

elicited i.e. voluntary rather than reflexes for e.g.
Employee choose to arrive at work at time.
06/27/2023 Learning 28
 Operant conditioning

06/27/2023 Learning 29
• One of the most widespread and
important types of learning is operant
conditioning, which involves increasing a
behavior by following it with a reward, or
decreasing a behavior by following it with
punishment.

06/27/2023 Learning 30
• When a response is followed by a REINFORCER
(favorable/positive consequences), that response
increases in probability of occurrence in the future.

• When a response is followed by a PUNISHER

(unfavorable/negative consequences) that response
decreases in probability of occurrence in the future

• The classic study was done by Burris Fredric

Skinner on a rat

06/27/2023 Learning 31
• American psychologist B. F. Skinner became one of the most
famous psychologists in history for his pioneering research on
operant conditioning.

• In fact, he coined the term operant conditioning.

• The term ‘operant’ indicates that the organism operates on its

environment to generate consequences, such as high grades or
money.

• Beginning in the 1930s, Skinner spent several decades studying

the behavior of animals—usually rats or pigeons—in chambers
that became known as Skinner boxes.

06/27/2023 Learning 32
06/27/2023 Learning 33
• Response
• Outcome/consequences
• Reward: the behaviour will be repeated
• Punishment: the behaviour will not be
repeated.

06/27/2023 Learning 34
06/27/2023 Learning 35
• The operant behaviorist B.F.Skinner, give attention to the
role that consequences play in learning or the response-
stimulus (R-S) connection.

"Behavior is a function of its consequences"

• The key feature of operant learning is that some action or

behavior of the learner (organism) is instrumental in
bringing change in the environment. This change in the
environment makes the action more or less likely to occur
again in the future

06/27/2023 Learning 36
06/27/2023 Learning
• Reinforcement -k|ang_
• Any stimulus whose presence or absence
increases probability of reoccurrence of a
behaviour /response

• Any stimulus which when present or absent

increases particular behaviour to reoccur.
• Chocolate, chips, cake; discount
• Hiding video games, getting scolding, not
being allowed to play with friends, fine
• Doing homework
06/27/2023 Learning 38
• Any stimulus which when present increases
particular behaviour to reoccur: positive (+)
reinforcement

• Any stimulus which when absent increases

particular behaviour to reoccur: negative (-)
reinforcement

06/27/2023 Learning 39
• Punishment -;hfo_
• Any stimulus whose presence or absence
decreases probability of reoccurrence of a
behaviour /response

• Any stimulus which when present or absent

decreases particular behaviour to reoccur.
• Chocolate, chips, cake; discount
• Hiding video games, getting scolding, not
being allowed to play with friends, fine
• Doing homework
06/27/2023 Learning 40
• Any stimulus which when present decreases
particular behaviour to reoccur: positive (+)
punishment

• Any stimulus which when absent decreases

particular behaviour to reoccur: negative (-)
punishment

06/27/2023 Learning 41
• Reinforcement: increase reoccurrence of
behaviour

• Punishment: decreases reoccurrence of

behaviour

• Positive punishment
06/27/2023 Learning 42
 Reinforces and punishers
• A reinforcer is an important tool.
• A reinforcer is the stimulus whose presentation or removal
increases the probability of a response re-occurring. Skinner
thinks of two kinds of reinforcers-positive and negative.
• A positive reinforcer is any stimulus the introduction or
presentation of which increases the likelihood of a particular
behaviour. E.g. parental praise for any behaviour of their
children increases the likelihood that the child will repeat that
behaviour again. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus the
removal or withdrawal of which increases the likelihood of a
particular behaviour. Negative reinforces are often painful (like
parental disappointment on their children securing low grades in
examination)

• 06/27/2023
Another tool in operant conditioning
Learning is punishment. 43
• Punishment is the stimulus whose presentation
or removal decreases the probability of a
response re-occurring.

• Types: Positive & Negative

06/27/2023 Learning 44
• SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT: Schedule of
reinforcement is the frequency and timing of
reinforcement following desired behavior. The two
major types of reinforcement are schedule are
continuous and intermittent.
• A continuous reinforcement schedule reinforces
the desired behavior each and every time it is
demonstrated. An intermittent reinforcement can
be of ratio or interval type. Ratio schedules
depend on how may responses the subject makes.
Interval schedules depend on how much time has
passed since the previous reinforcement.
06/27/2023 Learning 45
Reinforcement and punishment: an overview
Positive and negative reinforcement are both procedures that strengthen behavior.
Positive and negative punishment are both procedures that weaken behavior.
Procedure Stimulus event Effects Behavioral outcome

Positive Application of a desirable Strengthens Organisms learn to

Reinforcement stimulus. For e.g. food, high responses that perform responses
grade, praise precede occurrence that produce positive
of stimulus rein forcers
Negative Application of an undesirable Strengthens Organism learn to
Reinforcement aversive) stimulus(e.g low responses that permit perform responses
grade, harsh criticism,) escape from or that permit them to
avoidance of stimulus avoid or escape from
negative
rein forcers
Positive Application of an undesirable Weakens responses Organisms learn to
Punishment (aversive) stimulus that precede suppress responses
(punishment) occurrence of that lead to
stimulus unpleasant
consequences
Negative Loss or postponement of a Weakens responses Organisms learn to
Punishment desirable stimulus (denying that lead to loss or suppress responses
pocket money) postponement of that lead to loss or
stimulus postponement of
desire stimulus
06/27/2023 Learning 46
 FIGURE: Types of reinforcement and punishment
Intended results When stimulus is added, the result
is…
Increase in Positive reinforcement
behavior(Reinforcement) Example: Giving a raise for good
performance.
Result: Increase in response of good
performance
Decrease in behavior Positive Punishment
(Punishment) Example: Yelling at a teenager when
she steals a bracelet.
Result: Decrease in frequency of
response of stealing.
06/27/2023 Learning
When stimulus is removed or
terminated, the result is …
Negative reinforcement
Example: Applying ointment to
relieve an itchy rash leads to a
higher future likelihood of applying
the ointment.
Result: Increase in response of
using ointment.
Negative Punishment
Example: Teenager’s access to
scooty restricted by parents due to
teenager’s breaking traffic rules.
Result: Decrease of response of
breaking traffic rules
47
 Operant conditioning experiment

06/27/2023 Learning 48
 Difference between classical conditioning and
operant conditioning

• Type of response (Elicited and Emitted)

• Consequence of response

• Definition of reinforcement

06/27/2023 Learning 49
Table: Some examples of classical(S-R) and operant(R-S) conditioning

06/27/2023 Learning 50
 Principles of Operant Conditioning

1. Acquisition
2. Stimulus Generalization
3. Stimulus Differentiation
4. Extinction
5. Spontaneous Recovery

06/27/2023 Learning 51
 Reinforcement Schedules

A reinforcement schedule is a rule that

specifies the timing and frequency of
reinforces.
- fixed-ratio,
- fixed-interval,
- variable-ratio and
- variable-interval

06/27/2023 Learning 52
 ,
Fixed-ratio schedule: Individuals receive a reinforcer
each time they make a fixed number of responses. For
example, a factory worker may earn a certain amount
of money for every 100 items assembled.

Variable-ratio schedule: Individuals must also make a

number of responses before receiving a reinforcer, but
the number is variable and unpredictable. Slot
machines, roulette wheels, and other forms of
gambling are examples of variable-ratio schedules.

06/27/2023 Learning 53
 Fixed-interval schedule: Individuals receive
reinforcement for their response only after a
fixed amount of time elapses.

Variable-interval schedules: It also require

the passage of time before providing
reinforcement, but the amount of time is
variable and unpredictable.

The first reinforcement maybe provided after 30

seconds, another may come after 15 seconds,
another after 5 and so on.
06/27/2023 Learning 54
Reinforcement Nature of Effect on behavior Examples
schedule reinforcement

Continuous Reward given after Fast learning of new Compliments

each desired behavior, but rapid
behavior extinction
Fixed Interval Reward given at Average and irregular Weekly pay
fixed time performance with rapid cheques
extinction

Variable interval Reward given at Moderately high and Random and

variable times stable performance unannounced
with slow extinction visit to
workplaces
Fixed-ratio Reward given at High and stable Piece-rate pay
fixed amount of performance attained
outputs quickly but also with
rapid extinction

Variable ratio Reward given at Very high performance Commissioned

variable amounts of with slow extinction sales
06/27/2023
output Learning 55
 Shaping
• Shaping is a classicalconcept in operant
conditioning. It refers to the concept that
reinforcing the steps leading to the desired
response will eventually lead to the occurrence
of the desired response.

• The organism undergoing shaping receives a

reward for each small step toward a final goal
rather than only for the final response.
(Successive approximation).

06/27/2023 Learning 56
• Psychologists have used shaping to teach
children with severe mental retardation to
speak.

•Animal trainers at circuses teach elephants to

stand on one leg, tigers to balance on a ball-
Complex tasks by chaining Procedure.

06/27/2023 Learning 57
• Extinction, generalization and discrimination
occur in operant conditioning in much the
same way that they do in classical
conditioning

06/27/2023 Learning 58
 Operant conditioning :A cognitive
perspective

SEEPT 6 2013 Unit 3,Learning 59

 Learned Helplessness
A phenomena first observed in animals, suggests
that when people feel that important aspects
of their lives are out of their control, they may
experience Learned helplessness,

SEEPT 6 2013 Unit 3,Learning 60

 Symptoms of learned helplessness

• Passivity
• Giving up
• Procrastination
• Decreased problem-solving ability
• Frustration
• Low self esteem

SEEPT 6 2013 Unit 3,Learning 61

• The concept of learned helplessness was discovered
accidentally by psychologists Martin Seligman and Steven F.
Maier.

• initially observed helpless behavior in dogs that were

classically conditioned to expect an electrical shock after
hearing a tone.

• Later, the dogs were placed in a shuttlebox that contained

two chambers separated by a low barrier. The floor was
electrified on one side, and not on the other.

• The dogs previously subjected to the classical conditioning

made no attempts to escape, even though avoiding the shock
simply involved jumping over a low barrier.
SEEPT 6 2013 Unit 3,Learning 62
 Human example
• For example, if a child studies for an exam and
still receives a poor grade, he may feel that he
has no control over his performance, so he
decides to give up participating and studying
all together.

• He may then generalize these feelings to

other aspects of his life and lose motivation to
succeed, as he believes that his success is out
of his control.
SEEPT 6 2013 Unit 3,Learning 63
 Applications of Operant Conditioning: solving
problems of everyday life

• At the human level, operant conditioning procedures

are widely applicable.

• Certain beliefs, attitudes and goals and customs can

be learnt by operant conditioning.

• In the classroom, many teachers reinforce good

academic performance with small rewards or
privileges.
06/27/2023 Learning 64
• Parents can reinforce their children’s appropriate
behaviors and punish inappropriate ones,

• Use generalization and discrimination techniques to

teach which behaviors are appropriate in particular
situations.

• Biofeedback has been used in solving various health

problems

(Biofeedback – a technique that enables people to monitor and self-regulate

certain bodily functions through the use of specialized equipment)

06/27/2023 Learning 65
 Other Applications of Operant Conditioning:

Behavior therapists use

• the learning principles of operant conditioning to
treat children or adults with behavior problems or
psychological disorders.

Eg. stuttering, sexual disorders, marital problems, drug

addictions, impulsive disorder, eating disorders, and
many other behavioral problems.

shaping techniques to teach basic job skills to adults

with mental retardation.
06/27/2023 Learning 66
 Other Applications of Operant Cont….

reinforcement techniques to teach self-care

skills to people with severe mental illnesses,
such as schizophrenia, and

use punishment and extinction to reduce

aggressive and antisocial behaviors by these
individuals.

06/27/2023 Learning 67
 Organizational Application:

• Behavior Modification.

• Companies have used lotteries to improve

attendance, productivity, and job safety
among their employees.

06/27/2023 Learning 68
• SIMILARITIES BETWEEN CLASSICAL AND
OPERANT CONDITIONING
• The laws of CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
(acquisition, stimulus generalization, stimulus
differentiation, extinction, spontaneous
recovery) are also found in OPERANT
CONDITIONING.

06/27/2023 Learning 69
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLASSICAL
AND OPERANT CONDITIONING
  CLASSICAL OPERANT CONDITIONING
CONDITIONING
1. Type of Elicited (produced) by a Emitted or made voluntarily by
response stimulus the organism
2. Subject’s behavour cannot The response of the subject
Consequence produce any consequence produces the consequences
of response
3. Definition of Reinforcement follows Reinforcement follows the
reinforcement the stimulus (CS) that is, response, that is, food follows
food follows bell bar pressing

4. Association Association is made Association is made between a

between two stimuli, such response and a stimulus, such as
as a tone and food helping father and praise from
mother
06/27/2023 Learning 70
Behavioral vs. Cognitive Views of Learning
• Behaviorism (“learns to”) 

• 1. Learning involves the formation of associations between

specific actions and specific events (stimuli) in the
environment. These stimuli may either precede or follow the
action (antecedents vs. consequences). 

• 2. Many behaviorists use intervening variables to explain

behavior (e.g., habit, drive) but avoid references to mental
states. 

• 3. BEHAVIORISM: avoids any intervening variables and focuses

on descriptions of relationships between behavior and
environment (“functional analysis”).
06/27/2023 Learning 71
• Cognitive…
• Learning takes place in the mind, not in behavior. It involves
the formation of mental representations of the elements of a
task and the discovery of how these elements are related. 

• 2. Behavior is used to make inferences about mental states

but is not of interest in itself (“methodological behaviorism”).
 

• 3. EXAMPLE: Tolman & Honzik’s experiment on latent

learning. Tolman, a pioneer of cognitive psychology, argued
that when rats practice mazes, they acquire a “cognitive map”
of the layout—mental representations of the landmarks and
their spatial relationships.
06/27/2023 Learning 72
 COGNITIVE THEORIES OF LEARNING:

Social Learning =
Observational learning =
Imitation =
Vicarious Reinforcement

06/27/2023 Learning 73
• Not all learning is due to operant and classical
conditioning. E.g. learning to drive a car

• Some psychologist view learning in terms of thought

processes or cognition

• Such situations argue against regarding learning as the

unthinking, mechanical, and automatic acquisition of
associations between stimulus and responses, as in
classical conditioning or the presentation of
reinforcement, as in operant conditioning.

06/27/2023 Learning 74
 Basic Premise

• We learn behavior through observation

• Vicarious reinforcement: Learn through
observing consequences of behaviors of
others

06/27/2023 Learning 75
• According to Canadian-American psychologist Albert
Bandura a major part of human learning consists of
observational learning, which is learning by watching
the behavior of another person, or a model.

• Because of its reliance on observation of others – a

social phenomenon – the perspective taken by
Bandura is often referred to as a social cognitive
approach to learning.

06/27/2023 Learning 76
• Social learning theory is developed by Albert
Bandura and Richard Walter (1963).

• This approach is also known as observational

learning and imitation learning.

• Both children and adults learn a great deal

through observation and imitation.

06/27/2023 Learning 77
• Social learning theory states that learning can
take place via vicarious or modeling and self-
control processes.

• Learning by observation involves two steps:

 simply watching the behavior of another person, called a
model and,
 later imitating the model’s behavior.

06/27/2023 Learning 78
 Modeling
• Observe behavior of others and repeat the
behavior
• Bobo doll studies (1963)
• Disinhibition: Weakening of inhibition through
exposure to a model

06/27/2023 Learning 79
 Bandura’s Experiments

• In the early 1960s, Bandura dramatically

demonstrated the ability of models to stimulate
learning in a classic experiment.

• In the study, young children saw a film of an

adult wildly hitting a five foot-tall inflatable
punching toy called Bobo doll.

06/27/2023 Learning 80
06/27/2023 Learning 81
• Later the child was then left in another room filled
with interesting toys, including a Bobo doll.

• Compared with children who witnessed a nonviolent

adult model and those not exposed to any model,
children who witnessed the aggressive display were
much more likely to show aggressive behaviors
toward the Bobo doll.

• They often imitated the model's exact behaviors and

hostile words.

06/27/2023 Learning 82
06/27/2023 Learning 83
• In a variant of the original experiment, Bandura and
colleagues examined the effect of observed
consequences on learning.

• They showed four-year-old children one of three films of

an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll.

• In one version of the film, the adult was praised for his or
her aggressive behavior and given soda and candies.

• In another version, the adult was scolded, spanked, and

warned not to behave that way again.

• In a third version, the adult was neither rewarded nor

punished.

06/27/2023 Learning 84
06/27/2023 Learning 85
• BOBO DOLL
EXPERIMENT

06/27/2023 Learning 86
• Bandura concluded that even those children who did
not see the adult model receive a reward had learned
through observation, but these children (especially
those who saw the model being punished) would not
display what they had learned until they expected a
reward for doing so.

• The term latent learning describes cases in which an

individual learns a new behavior but does not perform
this behavior until there is the possibility of obtaining a
reward.

06/27/2023 Learning 87
 Principles of observational learning

Modeling involves four sub processes

1. Attention,: COVERT

2. Retention, : COVERT

3. Reproduction, and: OVERT

4. Motivation: OVERT
06/27/2023 Learning 88
06/27/2023 Learning 89
 Step 1: Attentional Processes
• Developing cognitive processes to pay
attention to a model- more developed
processes allow for better attention

• Must observe the model accurately enough to

imitate behavior

06/27/2023 Learning 90
 Step 2: Retention Processes
• To later imitate behavior, must remember aspects of
the behavior

• Retain information in 2 ways:

– Imaginal internal representation:
Visual image Eg: Forming a mental picture

– Verbal system:
Verbal description of behavior Eg.: Silently
rehearsing steps in behavior
06/27/2023 Learning 91
 Step 3: Production Processes

• Taking imaginal and verbal representations

and translating into overt behavior- practice
behaviors

• Receive feedback on accuracy of behavior-

how well have you imitated the modeled
behavior?

• Important in mastering difficult skills

– Ex: Driving a car
06/27/2023 Learning 92
 Step 4: Incentive and Motivational
Processes
• With incentives, observation more quickly
becomes action, pay more attention, retain
more information

• Incentive to learn influenced by anticipated

reinforcements

06/27/2023 Learning 93
 Observational Learning
Some practical applications

• Observational learning may contribute to the

development of unhealthy behaviors including
smoking specially among adolescents.

• Peer influence can also be used to promote

productive behaviors for e.g. mildly retarded
children can acquire skills for spelling their names,
perform simple arithmetic using calculator,
sharpening a pencil if enrolled in regular classroom

06/27/2023 Learning 94
 Observational Learning and aggression

• Can young people learn aggression through

watching the actions of others?

• Violence in television and video games: does

the media's message matter?

SEEPT 6 2013 Unit 3,Learning 95

• Does real life exposure to violence also lead to
increases in aggression?

• Researches had shown that it increases the

incidences of violence

SEEPT 6 2013 Unit 3,Learning 96

 Violence in television and video games

• In an episode of The Sopranos television

series, fictional mobster Tony Soprano
murdered one of his associates.

• To make identification of the victim's body

difficult, Sopranos and one of his henchmen
dismembered the body and dumped the body
parts.
SEEPT 6 2013 Unit 3,Learning 97
• A few months later, two real-life half brothers in
Riverside, California, strangled their mother and then
cut her head and hands from her body. Victor Bautista,
20, and Matthew Montejo,15 , who were caught by
police after a security guard noticed that the bundle
they were attempting to throw in a dumpster had a foot
sticking out of it, told the police that the plan to
dismember their mother was inspired by The Sopranos
episode(Martelle, Hanley, & Yoshino,2003 )

SEEPT 6 2013 Unit 3,Learning 98

• Does observing violent and antisocial act in
the media lead viewers to behave in similar
ways?

SEEPT 6 2013 Unit 3,Learning 99

• Because research on modeling shows that
people frequently learn and imitate the
aggression that they observe, this question is
among the most important being addressed by
psychologist.

SEEPT 6 2013 Unit 3,Learning 100

 Violence in video games: does the media's
message matter?

• In one of the series of studies by psychologist

Craig Anderson (2004) and his colleagues,
college students who frequently played violent
video games ,such as Postal or Doom , were
found to be more involved in delinquent
behavior and aggression. They also had lower
academic achievement.

SEEPT 6 2013 Unit 3,Learning 101

 Insight: Clear and deep
understanding
• INSIGHTFUL LEARNING (Also Insight
Learning)
• Insightful learning (Also Insight learning) is a
type of Learning that involves perceptual
reorganization; the solution comes suddenly
after a period during which little progress is
made. Insight

06/27/2023 Learning 102

• Insight means deep clear understanding. (i) In
one experiment, Kohler put the chimpanzee,
Sultan, inside a cage and a banana was hung
from the roof of the cage. A box was placed
inside the cage. The chimpanzee tried to reach
at the banana by jumping but could not
succeed. Suddenly, he got an idea and used
the box as a jumping platform by placing it just
below the hanging banana.
•
06/27/2023 Learning 103
• (ii) In another experiment, Kohler made this
problem more difficult. Now it required two or
three boxes to reach the bananas. Moreover,
the placing of one box over the other required
different specific arrangements.

06/27/2023 Learning 104

• (iii) In a more complicated experiment, the
banana was placed outside the cage of the
chimpanzee. Two sticks, one longer than the
other, were placed inside the cage. One was
hollow at one end so that the other stick could
be thrust into it to form a longer stick. The
banana was so kept that it could not be picked
up by any one of the sticks. The chimpanzee
first tried these sticks one after the other but
failed. Suddenly, he got a bright idea. The
06/27/2023 Learning 105
• Though Kohler seemed to see insightful
learning in terms of a sudden "aha" or a bolt
of lightning, it is bound to depend upon the
factors given below:
• (a) Experience: Past experiences help in the
insightful solution of the problems
• (b) Intelligence: Insightful solution depends
upon the basic intelligence of the learner. The
more intelligent the individual is, the greater
will be his insight.
06/27/2023 Learning 106
(c) Learning situation: As a common observation,
insight occurs when the learning situation is so
arranged that all the necessary aspects are open for
observation.
(d) Initial Efforts: These initial efforts, in the form of
simple trial and error mechanism, open the way for
insightful learning.
(e) Repetition and Generalization: After having an
insighting solution of a particular type of problem, the
organism tries to repeat it in another situation,
demanding similar type of solution. The way found in
one situation helps him to react insightfully in other
identical situations.
06/27/2023 Learning 107