What is a Radar Sensor?

Principle
Video Signal
Bands
Echo Quality

Basic Radar Technique

 RF transmitted
Target
RF received

c = 300.000 km/s (299700 km/s)

WG 300 km/ms
Switch 300 m/us

Calculating returns:
150 km/ms
150 m/us
15 m/100 ns

Transmitter Receiver

Control Display

RAdio Detection And Ranging 1/6

What is a Radar Sensor?

Video

Noise Noise & clutter Noise & clutter R = ½ ct

RAdio Detection And Ranging 1/4

2/6

What is a Radar Sensor?

 Antenna
Motor

Wave Guide Encoder, ARP & ACP’s Motor Controller

Circulator

Receiver Magnetro Modulator

Power
n Control
STC Supplies
Limiter HV, PW
LNFE
IF Amplifier
Video Ampl.

Video
Processing

Interface

Interface to external equipment

1/4
3/6

What is a Radar Sensor? Principle

 PTx = ~25 kW
T = ~40 - 1000 ns PRF = ~1 - 8 kHz

Returned power: PRx = ~1 pW

t = ~0.1 µs -1 ms
1
25 000 000 000 000 000
Tx Rx

Power: 1 pW Power: 25 kW

Distance: 1 micron Distance: 25 000 000 km

(travel of light during 83 seconds)

4/6

What is a Radar Sensor?

Designation Band Limits Wavelength Typical

HF 3 - 30 MHz 10 – 100 m
VHF 30 - 300 MHz 1 – 10 m
UHF 300 - 1000 MHz 0.3 – 1 m
L 1-2 GHz 15 – 30 cm 25 cm
9.170 GHz (5)
S 2-4 GHz 7.5 – 15 cm 10 cm
9.225 GHz (14)
C 4-8 GHz 3.75 – 7.5 cm 6 cm
9.375 GHz (1, 13)
X (I) 8 - 12 GHz 2.5 - 3.75 cm 3 cm
9.410 GHz (2, 12)
Ku 12 - 18 GHz 1.7 - 2.5 cm 2 cm
9.438 GHz (4)
K 18 - 27 GHz 1.1 - 1.7 cm 1.5 cm
9.490 GHz (3)
Ka 27- 40 GHz 0.75 - 1.1 cm 0.8 cm
V 40 - 75 GHz 4 - 7.5 mm
W 75 - 110 GHz 2.7 - 4 mm
mm 110 - 300 GHz 1 - 2.7 mm

5/6

Frequency Ranges
Quality of returned
Width
echo depends on: Aspect angle
Height
Shape
Aspect angle
RCS Coating
Surface
Material
Frequency
Polarization
Power
System PRF
PW
Antenna
Noise
Sea conditions
Environment Interference
Weather conditions
Clutter
Position
Range 6/6

Signal Quality
Intentionally left blank
PRF & PW
Pulse Repetition Frequency
Range
Second Time Around Echoes
Staggered PRF
Pulse Width
Range Resolution

Basic Radar Technique

The PRF determines - how often the radar transmits (PRF = pulses/s)
- maximum range of the system

T = 0.5 ms; PRF = 2 kHz (1/T)

Pulse travels 150 km in 0.5 ms

Transmitted
pulses

Max. range after 0.25 ms (75 km)

Echo needs 0.25 ms to return

T = 1 ms; PRF = 1 kHz (1/T)

Pulse travels 300 km in 1 ms

Transmitted
pulses

Max. range after 0.5 ms (150 km)

Echo needs 0.5 ms to return

1/4
1/8

Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)

 Range: 5 NM

300.000 km/s

300.000 km/s

Pulse 1 Target at 5 NM
t=0 t = 31 µs Next pulse

Transmit
Time needed for the pulse to hit the target: T = 31 µs
Pulse 1
t = 62 µs

Receive
Time needed for the pulse to return to the antenna: T = 31 µs

Time needed between two pulses: T > 62 µs or PRF < 16.1 kHz (corresponding 2 x range, here 10 NM)

c PRF [Hz] Max. range [NM] [km]

Max. range =
2 x PRF
1000 81 150
1500 54 100
2200 36.8 68.2
150.000 81.000
km 4000 20.2 37.5
PRF NM PRF 8000 10.1 18.7
2/8

Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)

 Range 40 km 30 km 60 km
PRF = 3750 Hz
0 Range
Sweep n

200.0 µs

266.7 µs / 0
Sweep n+1

133.3 µs

200.0 µs 60

50
266.7 µs / 0
40

30

20

Time 10

3/8

Second Time Around Echoes

• Staggered PRF is used to avoid “jamming” or
interference from other radars’ transmitting and “second
time around”.

• The change of repetition frequency does that the radar

on a pulse to pulse basis can differentiate between
returns from itself and returns from other radar systems
with same frequency.

4/8

Staggered PRF
 True
echo

My radar

”2nd radar”

False
echo

5/8

Staggered PRF
 False True T0

t-n t-n t-n

t t t

Processing

AND

AND
ADD

ADD
6/8

Without Staggered PRF

Without stagger

False True T0
With stagger

t-n t+m t-p

t t t

Processing

AND
AND
ADD

ADD 7/8

With Staggered PRF

 Propagation of light (c) : 300.000 km/s

c x PW
Range resolution =
2
Range
Range resolution = PW x 0.15 [m]
(PW inserted in ns)

½ x PWmax
PWmax

Pulse type VSP SP MP LP VLP

Pulse Width 40 ns 50 ns 250 ns 600 ns 1000 ns
Range Resolution 6m 7.5 m 37.5 m 90 m 150 m
8/8

Pulse Width (PW)

 Transmitted pulse
Length: 300 m (PW: 1 us)
150 m between targets

Echonear

Echonear

1/2

Range Resolution
 Echonear Echofar

Echonear Echofar

Echonear Echofar

2/2

Range Resolution
Intentionally left blank
Purpose of a Radar Sensor

PD, PFA, S/N

Radar Equation
Losses
Range Attenuation

Basic Radar Technique

To detect targets with highest possible probability (PD) and to measure target
positions (Range, Azimuth) and echo strength

To minimise false detections i.e. detection of noise and clutter as targets (PFA)

PD and PFA are related to the Signal-to-Noise ratio (S/N) - if two of these
quantities are known, the third may be calculated, e.g. S/N = f (PD, PFA)
1/5
1/4

Purpose of a Radar Sensor?

 Signal-to-Noise Ratio = f (Radar, Target, Environment, Video processing)

2
S PT  G A  2 σ
  2
4
4  ( FP  e
2   R
)  GVP
N 4    (k  T  B  FR )  LAll (4   )  R

PT: Transmitted Peak Power σ: RCS FP: Propagation GVP: Video

GA: Antenna Gain R: Range factor Processing
λ: Transmitter wavelength α: Atmospheric Gain
k: Bolzmann’s constant attenuation
T: Noise Temperature coefficient
B: Bandwidth
FR: Receiver Noise Figure
LAll: Radar Losses
2/5

Radar Equation
 Neyman-Pearson Criterion, Threshold Determination Vertical black line is
and the Relation between PD, PFA, and S/N-ratio video detection thres-
hold

Area under red curve

to the right of the
Probability density
Probability density

threshold is the proba-

bility of detection PD

Area under blue curve

to the right of the
threshold is the prob-
bability of false alarm
PFA

Relative position of the

two curves depends on
Video signal level relative to rms noise of 0.25
the average S/N-ratio
Video amplitude (drawn for S/Navg=9 dB)

3/5

Probability of Detection/False Alarms

Transmission line loss in waveguides, waveguide junctions, diplexers
etc.
Antenna beam shape loss

Scanning loss (rotation between transmission and reception)

Loss in radome

Nonmatched filter loss

+ specific losses depending on the specific radar sensor

Above quantities sum up to the system loss LAll used in the radar equation

4/5

Losses
 1 km 2 km 4 km 8 km 16 km
(ref.)

Antenna
Target 1 Target 2 Target 3 Target 4 Target 5

1 1/4 1/16 1/64 1/256

Attenuation
100 % 25 % 6.25 % 1.56 % 0.39 %
Transmitted signal
0 dB -6 dB -12 dB -18 dB -24 dB

1 1/16 1/256 1/4096 1/65536

Attenuation
100 % 6.25 % 0.39 % 0.24 ‰ 0.015 ‰
Received signal
0 dB -12 dB -24 dB -36 dB -48 dB

5/5

Signal Strength (Range only)

Intentionally left blank
Intentionally left blank
Radar Cross Section
Reflections
Definition
Typical Target Characteristics
Reference Measurements
Target Size and Wavelength
Rayleigh Distribution

Basic Radar Technique

Sphere as target

1/14
1/4

Radar Cross Section

Cylinder as target

2/14
1/4

Radar Cross Section

Cylinder as target

3/14
1/4

Radar Cross Section

Cylinder as target

4/14
1/4

Radar Cross Section

as target

5/14
1/4

Radar Cross Section

Radar Cross Section (RCS) is defined as

Power returned
RCS = 4 π
Power density

....both parametres measured at the target

Dimension of RCS

W W * m2
RCS = = = m2
W/m 2
W

6/14
1/4

Radar Cross Section - Definition

 Decreasing Power Density [W/m2]

7/14
1/4

Radar Cross Section - Power Density

 Returned power decreases
Power density decreases

Returned power
measured at
the target

....distance does not affect the RCS

8/14
1/4

Radar Cross Section

Typical Target Characteristics (guides)

Navigational aids without radar reflector Up to 1 m2

Navigational aids with radar reflector 10 - 100 m2

Small boats (fiber glass, wood, rubber) 0.5 - 5 m2

Sailing boats with radar reflector 3 - 10 m2

Small metal ships 10 - 100 m2

Small coasters 100 - 1.000 m2

Large coasters, cargo ships 1.000 - 10.000 m2

Container carriers 10.000 - 1.000.000 m2

Floating items (oil drums, birds) Up to 1 m2

Flock of birds Up to 3 m2
9/14

Radar Cross Section

Typical Target Characteristics

2 m2 reference reflector RCS: 0.5 - 1.5 m2

RCS: 5-8 m2

S-band: RCS: 1 - 2 m2

RCS ~ 40 % of RCS at X-band

10/14

Radar Cross Section

 Fresh wind from SW 1 meter waves with dense whitecaps
11/14

Radar Cross Section

Target Size and Wavelength (conducting sphere)

Rayleigh Resonance Optical

region region region

1
σsphere / πr2

2πr/λ<1 1 < 2 π r / λ < 10 2 π r / λ > 10

Circumference / Wavelength = 2 π r / λ
r = radius of sphere 12/14

Radar Cross Section

• RCS definition: Rayleigh distribution:

PR 1 
 av
RCS  4 
PDIN
[m2] p ( )  e
 av
Radar Cross Section PDF
2 2
• PR is the power (in W) reflected (Targets 1 m and 5 m )
towards the receiving antenna 1,2

• PDIN is the power density (in W/m2) 0,8

hitting the target

PDF
0,6

0,4

• RCS is a STATISTICAL quantity i.e. 0,2

it fluctuates rapidly with time. The
0
RCS of small targets follow the 0 10 20 30 40

Rayleigh power (=exponential) RCS

probability density distribution
(PDF) 13/14

Radar Cross Section

 14/14

Radar Cross Section

Intentionally left blank
Propagation of Signals
Horizons and Range
Antenna Height
Noise & Clutter
Anomalous Propagation, Ducts
Reflections, Ghost Echoes
Simulation Software

Basic Radar Technique

 10.56 NM / 12.20 NM
(19.56 km / 22.59 km)

h = 30 m rEarth = 6378155 m

Geometric Horizon Radar Horizon

Horizongeometric = (2 x h x rEarth)0.5 [m] Horizonradar = (2 x h x 4/3 x rEarth)0.5 [m]

Horizongeometric = (2 x 30 x 6378155)0.5 Horizonradar = (2 x 30 x 4/3 x 6378155)0.5

Horizongeometric = 19.56 km / 10.56 NM Horizonradar = 22.59 km / 12.20 NM

...or ...or

Horizongeometric = 3.57 x h0.5 [km] Horizonradar = 4.12 x h0.5 [km]

Horizongeometric = 1.93 x h0.5 [NM] Horizonradar = 2.22 x h0.5 [NM]
1/29
1/4

Geometric Horizon / Radar Horizon

 h=0m

hT = 20 m
hA = 50 m
RangeA = 29.13 km / 15.73 NM + RangeT = 18.43 km / 9.95 NM

Total Range = 47.6 km / 25.7 NM

RangeRADAR = RangeA + RangeT or RangeRADAR = 4.12 (hT0.5 + hA0.5) [km]

RangeRADAR = 2.2 (hT0.5 + hA0.5) [NM]

RangeRADAR = 29.13 + 18.43 RangeRADAR = 4.12 (200.5 + 500.5)

RangeRADAR = 47.6 km (25.7 NM) RangeRADAR = 47.6 km (25.7 NM)

2/29

Radar Range
 Visible

Visible
Invisible Invisible
(due to min. range) (due to max. range)

3/29

Antenna Height
 Solar or galactic noise

Atmospheric noise Antenna

Waveguide and
Man made noise Duplexer noise

Transmitter Receiver

Land or sea clutter Receiver

noise

4/29

Noise & Clutter

 0.00001 50
H2O
0.01 10
O2
Absorption
O2
Fraction of signal 0.79 1
Loss
getting through 1 [dB/km]
km of
atmosphere H2O
0.98 0.1

0.9995 0.01
1 10 50 100 200 300
Frequency [GHz]
150 mm/hr (6 inch/hr)

X Band
10 25 mm/hr (1 inch/hr)

5 mm/hr (0.2 inch/hr)

Attenuation
[dB/km] 1.25 mm/hr (0.05 inch/hr)

S Band
1
Rain attenuation 0.25 mm/hr (0.01 inch/hr)

0.1

0.01
1 10 100
Frequency [GHz] 5/29

Absorption & Rain Attenuation

Propagation in free space
Propagation in normal atmosphere
Subrefraction ctio
n
a
Superrefraction b ref
r
Su e ction
Severe superrefraction (ducting) i on
at spac
d ir e
pag
e
P ro in fre

”Standard” refraction
in normal atmosphere

Sup
erre
frac
tion
Su
pe
rr
Du efrac
cti
ng tion 6/29

Subrefraction and Superrefraction

Speed of light

In free space: 299792.458 km/s

In the atmosphere: 299700 km/s
Convenient round up: 300000 km/s ction
e
d ir e
i on c
pa gat e spa
Pro in fre

7/29

No Refraction in Free Space

Changes in ....cause ....cause ....cause
temperature, change in the variations in changes in the
moisture and atmospheric the speed of propagation
pressure density EM waves direction (bending)

More moisture means more refraction

Higher temperature means less refraction
Pressure variations alone provide no significant change in refraction

Refraction is always such that SOF

SH OU T
LDE R

the waves turn toward the

medium in which they
travel more slowly

8/29

Change of Speed & Direction

Electromagnetic waves bend
around cold air

Warmed- Warmed-
up air up air

Cold air Cold air

9/29

Bending of Electromagnetic Waves

 Cooled air

Warmed-
up air
Electromagnetic waves
bend around cold air

10/29

Bending of Electromagnetic Waves

 Be
am

Temperature, moisture and to a lesser extent

a

Medium a
pressure, decrease the speed of light and with Medium b
that the refraction towards the slow speed
medium is increased
b

Decreased
speed of light

ac uum
In v

Temperature
Moisture
Pressure ”Standard” refraction
in normal atmosphere

11/29

Refraction in Normal Atmosphere

 3000

Subrefraction occurs when moisture increases

with height and the atmospheric temperature

En vi
2000 lapse rate approaches dry adiabatic

rome
Altitude [m]

Dr

xo C/
10
ya

n tal l
o
di a
C/

km
km ra te
b

ap se
a ti
c
1000

ra te

Increasing moisture
0
0 10 20 30 Subrefraction
Temperature

”Standard” refraction
in normal atmosphere

12/29

Subrefraction
Superrefraction occurs when moisture decreases with height
and the atmospheric temperature increases with height -
when both happens near the surface of the earth

Increasing Decreasing
temperature moisture

”Standard” refraction
in normal atmosphere

Superrefraction

13/29

Superrefraction
Ducting - or trapping - (severe superrefraction) occurs when moisture
decreases with height and the atmospheric temperature increases with
height - when both happens near the surface of the Earth.
This cause a change in the vertical refractive index

Same conditions as for superrefraction, but more intense.

Sea Breeze Ducts Ducts act like a waveguide

Evaporation Ducts
Surface Radiation Ducts
Subsidence Ducts
Ducts are frequency dependent (band pass)
Coupling angle determines the low limit
Duct strength determines the high limit
Entry into the duct only at the ends or
at an acute angle (the closer the better)

Su
pe
rr
Du efrac
ct i
ng tion
14/29

Ducting
Warmer off-land
breeze
Ducts form at the level
of the escarpment

Sea Br
eeze
Duct Cooler sea
breeze

Eddy
currents

15/29

Sea Breeze Ducts

High pressure system

Subsidence (falling air)

Duct over very long distance, height 400-800 m

16/29

Subsidence Ducts
Surface ducts form at night and break up in the early morning when the ground
is heated. It rises to dissipate between 50 m and 200 m above ground.

Visible as a fog layer close to the ground.

Warmer air

Height of duct: 3 - 5 m

Ground cools by radiation resulting in a cool layer close to the ground

Signals can be trapped and propagate along the ground until the duct dissipates or
until a blocking object is encountered such as a line of trees or a hill.

Signals can be reflected from the top of a surface duct. 17/29

Surface (Radiation) Ducts

Can be present for days.
Can act as mirror and reflect signals from the top of the duct.

Easily located by visual observation

Temperature inversion

Warm air

Cool air
Cooling from evaporation near the surface of the water

Signals can be reflected from the top of a surface duct.

18/29

Evaporation Ducts
 A radio wave has a natural tendency to bend around an obstacle.

This phenomenon is called ”Diffraction”.

Receiving
Antenna
possible

Shadow zone

19/29

Diffraction
The propagation factor accounts for the deviations from free space
environment by taking into account surface reflections, refraction etc. F P is
1 for free space but may be both larger than 1 and smaller than 1 in
realistic conditions.

A
Radar B
Direct wave

Reflections
ha
Ref ht
lect e
ed wav
Reflecting surface

20/29

Propagation Factor, Reflections

 A
Radar B
Direct wave

ha
Ref ht
le cte e
d wav
Reflecting surface

Direct wave
T
Magnetron pulse, 9.17 GHz Reflected wave (delayed)
Delay

T = 109 ps (109 x 10-12 s)

A prolonged trajectory for the reflected wave will cause a delay.

16.4 mm prolonged trajectory will cause a delay of 54.5 ps (a half wave) and with that
neutralize the direct wave. Same will happen when a multiplum of the wave length is added
to the trajectory of the reflected wave (x times 32.8 mm or x times 109 ps).

Values for a 9.17 GHz transmitting pulse. 21/29

Propagation Factor, Reflections

 400 m

1000 m 100 m

0m 1000 m 1100 m 1400 m

22/29

Ghost Echoes
The effects of the environment may be calculated by simulation tools as
e.g. CARPET. The results may be represented by e.g. coverage diagrams:

Real environment

Free space

23/29

Carpet
 Detection probability PD

24/29

Lobing
 25/29

Areps
 26/29

Areps
 27/29

Areps
 28/29

Areps
 29/29

Areps
Intentionally left blank
Intentionally left blank
Sectors & Markers
Transmit Sectors
Prohibit Sectors
Sector Parametres
EBL, VRM, Vector and Cross

Basic Radar Technique

 N N
I Prohibit Sector, unstabilised
(high priority)
IV
III III
II IV
II Transmit Sector, unstabilised
(medium priority) I
I II
III Transmit Sector, stabilised (north)
(medium priority)

IV Blanking Area (all white areas)

(low priority)

For landbased radar sites, there is no difference between stabilised and unstabilised sectors.

For shipborne radar sites, the unstabilised sectors follow the ship while the stabilised sectors are remaining relative
to north (based on input from the gyro).

Up to 4 independent sectors can be defined.

1/7

Sectors, Stabilised/Unstabilised
Sector Width: 10 - 360º in steps of 1º

90º

5 º
Sector Width: 200 – 90 = 110º 200º 14
ring
a
Be
Bearing: Middle of sector = 145º 10º
r =1
c to
Se

2/7

Sectors, Parameters
Direction in
degrees

3/7

Display Tools, EBL

Lat./Long. relative to
radar position

4/7

Display Tools, Cross Position

Range in
km or Nm

5/7

Display Tools, VRM

Length (km or Nm)
and direction in degr.

6/7

Display Tools, Vector

 7/7

Display Tools, Reference Points

Magnetron
Components of a Magnetron
Function
Nature of New Magnetrons
Precautions

Basic Radar Technique

 Permanent magnet
1 1
fres =
2π LC

Cathode (heated)

Resonance
cavity
Anode

Permanent magnet
1/9

Magnetron
 Permanent magnet

H H
H H
Vacuum
Cathode (negative, heated)
E - E Electric field
-
Anode (positive)
+ + +
Magnetic field

Permanent magnet

2/9

Magnetron
 1. 2. +
-

Heating Heating

+
-

The trajectory of the electron is the shortest from
cathode to anode. Increasing the electric field is
increasing the velocity of the electron (and with that
increasing the induced magnetic field around the
electron)
Adding a magnetic field parallel to the
symmetry axis and perpendicular to the DC
field causes the electron to deflect.
3/9

Magnetron
Magnetic field and the electron’s trajectory

Right hand rule:

1. Fingers showing the direction of the test charge
2. Bend the fingers in the direction of the magnetic field (here: down)
Direction of deflection: Positive test charge: Thumb
Negative test charge: Little finger
Lorentz Force Law:

F = qv x B

- Magnetic field
F

Direction of test charge

B

+ Positive
test
charge q
v

4/9

Magnetron
 3. 4.
+
- -
-
+

+ +

- -

Heating + +

- -
+

A snapshot of the electrical RF field.

Passing electrons hit the resonance cavities and

these will oscillate with the resonance frequency.

The fields will either add further acceleration to the

High DC field and high magnetic field. High velocity electrons or they will reduce the velocity of the
and high induced field around the electron. electrons.
Deflection of the electron until the direction changes
and the DC field is decreasing the velocity to zero. The RF field is raised to the level of the anode
A new cycle starts. voltage.
5/9

Magnetron
 5. 6.

Energy is released when the velocity is reduced Ex. a waveguide is mounted in one of
(caused by the RF field) and reducing the velocity the cavities to lead out the RF energy.
several times, the optimal amount of energy is
released.

An efficiency of up to 80% is obtained.

6/9

Magnetron
The nature of a new magnetron

Vacuum is necessary for proper working of the magnetron.

During stockage the vacuum is deteriorated while the gas

molecules, which at high temperature are combined with the
inner metal parts, are detaching and filling the space
between the cathode and the anode. When full high voltage
is applied the molecules are ionized and thereafter
bombarding the cathode with a destroyed cathode as result.

Furthermore, during stockage a deterioated vacuum leads to

a poisoning of the cathode. The barium layer is covered by a
layer of barium oxide. The emission ability is reduced and
the life time as well.

7/9

Magnetron
Take precautions against reduced lifetime

Never apply full high voltage to new and/or stocked

magnetrons.
Risc of flash-over inside the magnetron.

By applying a reduced supply voltage for a specified amount of

time the vacuum will regenerate as the free gas molecules will
combine with the inner metal parts.

By applying a reduced supply voltage also the poisoning

problem will be solved. The mix of a high cathode temperature
and the reduced voltage will ionize the barium oxide. The oxide
ions will combine with the anode and in this way the emission
ability is improved.

8/9

Magnetron
 Manufacturer Notes
Type Frequency [MHz] Terma A/S P/N
P/N

1 9375 Marconi MG5239T 262149-001

2 9410 Marconi MG5242T 262149-002

3 9490 Marconi MG5231T 262149-003

4 9438 Marconi M5089T 262149-005

5 9170 Marconi MG5230T 262149-006

7 3050 Marconi MG5223T 262159-001 S-Band

12 9410 Marconi MG5331 262270-002 Low Power

13 9375 Marconi MG5331L 262270-003 Low Power

14 9225 E2V MG5497T 262149-008

9/9

Magnetron Types