Presentation created by:

Assoc. Prof. Aneliya Manukova,

Department of Electronics
University of Ruse „Angel Kanchev”
Power amplifiers are large-signal amplifiers. This generally means that a much larger
portion of the load line is used during signal operation than in a small-signal amplifier.
In this chapter, we will cover four classes of power amplifiers: class A, class B, class
AB, and class C. These amplifier classifications are based on the percentage of the
input cycle for which the amplifier operates in its linear region. Each class has a unique
circuit configuration because of the way it must be operated. The emphasis is on
power amplification. Power amplifiers are normally used as the final stage of a
communications receiver or transmitter to provide signal power to speakers or to a
transmitting antenna. BJTs are used to illustrate power amplifier principles.
CLASS-A AMPLIFIER:. The Q-point biase at a level so that at least half the signal swing of the output may
vary up and down without going to a high-enough voltage to be limited by the supply voltage level or too low
to approach the lower supply level, or 0 V in this description.

CLASS-B AMPLIFIER: The dc bias point for class B is therefore at 0 V, with the output then varying from this
bias point for a half cycle. Obviously, the output is not a faithful reproduction of the input if only one half-cycle
is present. The combined half-cycles then provide an output for a full 360° of operation. This type of
connection is referred to as push-pull operation, which is discussed later in this chapter. Note that class B
operation by itself creates a very distorted output signal since reproduction of the input takes place for only
180° of the output signal swing.

CLASS-AB AMPLIFIER: An amplifier may be biased at a dc level above the zero base current level of class
B and above one-half the supply voltage level of class A; this bias condition is class AB. Class AB operation
still requires a push-pull connection to achieve a full output cycle, but the dc bias level is usually closer to the
zero base current level for better power efficiency, as described shortly. For class AB operation, the output
signal swing occurs between 180° and 360° and is neither class A nor class B operation.

CLASS D AMPLIFIER: This operating class is a form of amplifier operation using pulse (digital) signals,
which are on for a short interval and off for a longer interval. Using digital techniques makes it possible to
obtain a signal that varies over the full cycle (using sample-and-hold circuitry) to recreate the output
from many pieces of input signal.
In a small-signal amplifier, the ac signal moves
over a small percentage of the total ac load line.
When the output signal is larger and approaches
the limits of the ac load line, the amplifier is a
large-signal type. Both large-signal and small-
signal amplifiers are considered to be class A if
they operate in the linear region at all times

Q-point value, ICQ, up to its saturation value, Ic(sat), and

down to its cutoff value of zero. Likewise, the collector-to-
emitter voltage can swing from its Q-point value, VCEQ, up to
its cutoff value, Vce(cutoff ), and down to its saturation value
of near zero. This operation is indicated in Figure 2(b). The
peak value of the collector current equals ICQ, and the peak
value of the collector-to-emitter voltage equals VCEQ in this
case. This signal is the maximum that can be obtained from
the class A amplifier.
CLASS A
 CLASS A

In general, the low efficiency

of class A amplifiers limits their
usefulness to small power
applications that require
usually less than 1 W.
 CLASS A

Determine the voltage gain and the power Determine the efficiency
gain of the class A power amplifier. of the power for Example 1.
Assume ac = 200 for all transistors.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
The Q-Point is at Cutoff.The class B amplifier is biased at
the cutoff point so that

Common-collector class B amplifier.

 CLASS B

The combination of two class B amplifiers working together is called push-pull

operation. There are two common approaches for using push-pull amplifiers to
reproduce the entire waveform. The first approach uses transformer coupling.
The second uses two complementary symmetry transistors; these are a
matching pair of npn/pnp BJTs.

Complementary Symmetry Transistors

Figure of next page shows one of the most popular types of push-pull class B amplifiers using two emitter-
followers and both positive and negative power supplies. This is a complementary amplifier because one
emitter-follower uses an npn transistor and the other a pnp, which conduct on opposite alternations of the
input cycle. Transistor Q1 conducts during the positive half of the input cycle, and Q2 conducts during the
negative half.
 CLASS B

During a positive half-cycle During a negative half-cycle

 CLASS AB

R1 and R2 are of equal value, as are the positive and

negative supply voltages. This forces the voltage at point
A (between the diodes) to equal 0 V and eliminates the
need for an input coupling capacitor. The dc voltage on
the output is also 0 V. Assuming that both diodes and both
complementary transistors are identical, the drop across
D1 equals the VBE of Q1, and the drop across D2 equals
the VBE of Q2. Since they are matched, the diode current
will be the same as ICQ. The diode current and ICQ can be
found by applying Ohm’s law to either R1 or R2 as follows:
 CLASS AB

The circuit operation is the same as that described

previously, except the bias is set to force the output
emitter voltage to be VCC/2 instead of zero volts used
with two supplies. Because the output is not biased at
zero volts, capacitive coupling for the input and output is
necessary to block the bias voltage from the source and
the load resistor.

Input Resistance
Class AB Output Stage
Quasi Class AB
 CLASS AB

Determine the ideal maximum peak output Find the maximum ac output power
voltage and current for the circuit and the dc input power of the amplifier
 CLASS AB

SOLUTION SOLUTION
Basic class C amplifier circuit Input voltage and output current waveforms Load line operation
 CLASS C

The transistor is on for a short time, ton, and off for the rest of
the input cycle. Therefore, assuming the entire load line is
used, the power dissipation averaged over the entire cycle
Amplifier Classes and Efficiency
Other Amplifier Classes
Class D Amplifier – A Class D audio amplifier is basically a non-linear switching amplifier or PWM amplifier.
Class-D amplifiers theoretically can reach 100% efficiency, as there is no period during a cycle were the
voltage and current waveforms overlap as current is drawn only through the transistor that is on.
Class F Amplifier – Class-F amplifiers boost both efficiency and output by using harmonic resonators in the
output network to shape the output waveform into a square wave. Class-F amplifiers are capable of high
efficiencies of more than 90% if infinite harmonic tuning is used.
Class G Amplifier – Class G offers enhancements to the basic class AB amplifier design. Class G uses
multiple power supply rails of various voltages and automatically switches between these supply rails as the
input signal changes. This constant switching reduces the average power consumption, and therefore power
loss caused by wasted heat.
Class I Amplifier – The class I amplifier has two sets of complementary output switching devices arranged
in a parallel push-pull configuration with both sets of switching devices sampling the same input waveform.
One device switches the positive half of the waveform, while the other switches the negative half similar to a
class B amplifier. With no input signal applied, or when a signal reaches the zero crossing point, the
switching devices are both turned ON and OFF simultaneously with a 50% PWM duty cycle cancelling out
any high frequency signals.
 Class D Operation

Basic Principles of Class D

To produce the positive half of the output signal, the output of the positive switching device is increased in
duty cycle while the negative switching device is decreased by the same and vice versa. The two switching
signal currents are said to be interleaved at the output, giving the class I amplifier the named of: “interleaved
PWM amplifier” operating at switching frequencies in excess of 250kHz.
Class S Amplifier – A class S power amplifier is a non-linear switching mode amplifier similar in operation
to the class D amplifier. The class S amplifier converts analogue input signals into digital square wave
pulses by a delta-sigma modulator, and amplifies them to increases the output power before finally being
demodulated by a band pass filter. As the digital signal of this switching amplifier is always either fully “ON”
or “OFF” (theoretically zero power dissipation), efficiencies reaching 100% are possible.
Class T Amplifier – The class T amplifier is another type of digital switching amplifier design. Class T
amplifiers are starting to become more popular these days as an audio amplifier design due to the existence
of digital signal processing (DSP) chips and multi-channel surround sound amplifiers as it converts analogue
signals into digital pulse width modulated (PWM) signals for amplification increasing the amplifiers efficiency.
Class T amplifier designs combine both the low distortion signal levels of class AB amplifier and the power
efficiency of a class D amplifier.
Temperature stabilization of the initial current in final stages

Power amplifiers that operate in class AB possess greater variability of parameters when
the temperature changes. The reason for this is that the operating mode of the final
power transistors is chosen very shallow in the linear region of the entrance static
characteristic, and as is known, the transition between linear and non-linear area is
very sharp. The chain which carries thermo-stabilization must comply with the utmost
two main tasks.
The first - to provide necessary for proper operation of the output stage bias.
Second - to keep quiescent current of the final transistors constant, changing their
temperature.
applicable
in integrated applicable in
performance discreetly
performance
T1 may be considered
as a DC voltage amplifier

T1, T2 and T3 are common radiator

surrounded by a red line
Schemes of amplifiers where the cooling radiator
are only powerful transistors and T1
 There is not a clear cut difference between ‘ordinary’ transistors
used in voltage amplifiers and power transistors, but generally
Power transistors can be categorised as those than can handle
more than 1 Ampere of collector (or Drain in the case of FETs)
current.
 Because power transistors, such as those shown handle larger
currents and higher voltages, they have a different construction
to small signal devices. They must have low output resistances so
that they can deliver large currents to the load, and good
junction insulation to withstand high voltages. They must also be
able to dissipate heat very quickly so they do not overheat. As
most heat is generated at the collector/base junction, the area of
this junction is made as large as possible.
 Power and Temperature

The maximum power rating of a transistor is

largely governed by the temperature of the
collector/base junction as can be seen from the
power de-rating graph. If too much power is
dissipated, this junction gets too hot and the
transistor will be destroyed, a typical maximum
temperature is between 100°C and 150°C,
although some devices can withstand higher
maximum junction temperatures. The maximum
power output available from a power transistor is
closely linked to temperature, and above 25°C
falls in a linear manner to zero power output as
the maximum permissible temperature is
reached
Power De-rating

For example, a transistor such as the TIP31 having a quoted maximum power
output PTOT of 40W can only handle 40W of power IF the case temperature
(slightly less than the junction temperature) is kept below 25°C. The
performance of a power transistor is closely dependant on its ability to dissipate
the heat generated at the collector base junction.
Minimising the problem of heat is approached in two main ways:
 1. By operating the transistor in the most efficient way possible, that is by

choosing a class of biasing that gives high efficiency and is least wasteful of
power.
 2. By ensuring that the heat produced by the transistor can be removed and

effectively transferred to the surrounding air as quickly as possible.

Heat-sinks
 A heat-sink is designed to remove heat from a transistor and dissipate it into
he surrounding air as efficiently as possible. Heat-sinks take many different
forms, such as finned aluminium or copper sheets or blocks, often painted or
anodised matt black to help dissipate heat more quickly.
 A selection of heat-sinks is illustrated in Figure. Good physical contact between
the transistor and heat-sink is essential, and a heat transmitting grease (heat-
sink compound) is smeared on the contact area before clamping the transistor
to the heat-sink.
 Where it is necessary to maintain electrical insulation between transistor and
heat-sink a mica layer is used between the heat-sink and transistor. Mica has
excellent insulation and very good heat conducting properties
 Choosing the Right Heat-sink
Many heat-sinks are available to fit specific transistor package types,
(‘package’ refers to the shape and dimensions of the transistor).
 a. Shows a tube of heat-sink compound.

 b. Shows a TO220 clip on heat-sink.

 c. Shows a TIP31 transistor, which has a TO220 package type, ready

for mounting.
 d. Shows the metal body of the transistor smeared with heat-sink

compound. This is essential to create efficient heat transfer

between the transistor and heat-sink.
 e. Shows the transistor fitted to the heat-sink.

 f. Shows an alternative method of mounting, used when the metal

body of the transistor, must be insulated from the heat-sink. This

example uses a TO220 shaped mica washer, and the transistor is
clamped to the heat-sink with a bolt fitted through the small
insulating bush.
Calculating the Required Thermal Resistance Rth for a Heat-sink
 The heat-sink chosen must be able to dissipate heat from the transistor to the
surrounding air, quickly enough to prevent the junction temperature of the transistor
exceeding its maximum permitted value (usually quoted on the transistor’s data
sheet), typically 100 to 150°C.
 Each heat-sink has a parameter called its Thermal Resistance (Rth) measured in
°C/Watt and the lower the value of Rth the faster heat is dissipated. Other factors
affecting heat dissipation include the power (in Watts) being dissipated by the
transistor, the efficiency of heat transfer between the internal transistor junction and
the transistor case, and the case to the heat-sink.
 The difference between the temperature of the heatsink and the air temperature
surrounding the heat-sink (the ambient temperature) must also be taken into
account. The main criterion is that the heat-sink should be efficient enough, too
efficient is not a problem.
Calculating the Required Thermal Resistance Rth for a Heat-sink
Typical Rth Calculation for:
 A TIP31 transistor (TO220 package) required to dissipate 5 Watts.

 Maximum Junction Temperature = 150°C

 Ambient (air) temperature = 25°C.

 Thermal resistance between junction and case calculated from power de-rating graph Rth

j-c = (150°C − 25°C) / 40W = 3.125°C.

 Max. case temperature when dissipating 5W = 150 − (5 x 3.125) = 134°C (approx).

 Thermal resistance Rth c-hs between case and heat-sink (allowing for mica washer) =

2°C.
 Max. heat-sink temperature = 134 - (5 x 2) = 124°C.

 To reach ambient air temperature = 25°C Thermal resistance of heat-sink must be better

than (124 − 25) / 5 = 19.8°C/W

 A better choice, to avoid operating the transistor at its maximum permitted temperature,

would be to choose a heatsink with a thermal resistance of about 10 to 15°C/W.