Spatial Data Mining

Introduction
Spatial data mining is the process of discovering interesting, useful, non-trivial patterns from large spatial datasets Spatial Data Mining Tasks
Classification/Prediction Co-location Mining Clustering
E.g. co-location patterns of water pumps and cholera Determining hotspots: unusual locations

Recap of special properties of Spatial Data

Spatial autocorrelation Spatial heterogeneity Implicit Spatial Relations

Spatial Relations
Spatial databases do not store spatial relations explicitly
Additional functionality required to compute them

Three types of spatial relations specified by the OGC reference model

Distance relations
Direction relations
Euclidean distance between two spatial features Ordering of spatial features in space Characterise the type of intersection between spatial features

Topological relations

Distance relations
If dist is a distance function and c is some real number 1. dist(A,B)>c, 2. dist(A,B)<c and 3. dist(A,B)=c
A B

Direction relations
If directions of B and C are required with respect to A Define a representative point, rep(A) rep(A) defines the origin of a virtual coordinate system The quadrants and half planes define the direction relations B can have two values {northeast, east} Exact direction relation is northeast
C north A
C

B northeast A
A B

rep(A)

Topological Relations
Topological relations describe how geometries intersect spatially Simple geometry types
Point, 0-dimension Line, 1-dimension Polygon, 2-dimension

Each geometry represented in terms of

Examples for simple geometries

boundary (B) geometry of the lower dimension interior (I) points of the geometry when boundary is removed exterior (E) points not in the interior or boundary For a point, I = {point}, B={} and E={Points not in I and B} For a line, I={points except boundary points}, B={two end points} and E={Points not in I and B} For a polygon, I={points within the boundary}, B={the boundary} and E={points not in I and B}

 Topological relations are defined using any one of the following models

DE-9IM

DE-9IM is an OGC complaint model

4IM, four intersection model (only B and E considered) 9IM, nine intersection models (B, I, and E) DE-9IM, dimensionally extended 9 intersection model

Dim is the dimension function

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Example
Consider two polygons
A - POLYGON ((10 10, 15 0, 25 0, 30 10, 25 20, 15 20, 10 10)) B - POLYGON ((20 10, 30 0, 40 10, 30 20, 20 10))

9-Intersection Matrix of example geometries

I(B) B(B) E(B) I(A)

B(A)

E(A)
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DE-9IM for the example geometries

I(B) B(B) E(B)

I(A)
B(A) E(A)

2
1 2

1
0 1

2
1 2
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Relationships using DE-9IM

Different geometries may give rise to different numbers in the DE-9IM For a specific type of relationship we are only interested in certain values in certain positions
That is, we are interested in patterns in the matrix than actual values

Actual values are replaced by wild cards

A I(B) B(B) E(B) over laps B I(A) T * T B(A) * E(A) T * * * *

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T: value is "true" - non empty any dimension >= 0 F: value is "false" - empty dimension < 0 *: Don't care what the value is 0: value is exactly zero 1: value is exactly one 2: value is exactly two

Topological Relations

x.Disjoint(y)

x.Touches(y)

FF*FF**** FT******* Area/Area, Line/Line, Line/Area, Point/Area F**T***** Not Point/Point F***T**** T*T****** Point/Line, Point/Area, Line/Area 0******** Line/Line TF*F***** T*T***T** Point/Point, Area/Area 1*T***T** Line/Line A crosses B A overlaps B

x.Crosses(y)
x.Within(y)

x.Overlaps(y)

DE-9IM string for example geometries was 212101212 (from earlier slide)

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Approaches to Spatial Data Mining

Materialize spatial features and use Weka
Required features are added as additional attributes to the main feature To create a flat file of data

Use special data mining techniques that take spatial dependency into account

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Materializing features- Example

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Materializing features- Example (2)

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Spatial Data Mining Architecture

Retrieve data belonging to multiple themes Preprocess spatial data to materialize spatial features
Weka

Flat File
Feature Selection & OGC complaint methods to compute relations Multiple Themes

Use Weka like tool to perform data mining

Select the required features Use the methods to compute spatial relations to create a flat file of data

OGC Complaint Spatial DBMS

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Spatial Clustering
Also called spatial segmentation Input
a table of area names and their corresponding attributes such as population density, number of adult illiterates etc. Information about the neighbourhood relationships among the areas A list of categories/classes of the attributes Grouped (segmented) areas where each group has areas with similar attribute values

Output

Census Website has plenty of examples

http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/censusma ps/index.html

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Similarity with image segmentation

Spatial segmentation is performed in image processing
Identify regions (areas) of an image that have similar colour (or other image attributes). Many image segmentation techniques are available
E.g. region-growing technique

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1

2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2

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Region Growing Technique

There are many flavours of this technique One of them is described below:
1 1 1 1
2 2

Functionality to compute spatial relations (neighbours) assumed

Assign seed areas to each of the segments (classes of the attribute) Add neighbouring areas to these segments if the incoming areas have similar values of attributes Repeat the above step until all the regions are allocated to one of the segments

1
2 2 2

2
2

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Summary
Spatial data storage available as extensions of RDBMS Visualization of Spatial data available in GIS Spatial Data Mining requires functionality to compute spatial relations OGC specifications provide the standards for all the above resources MYSQL provides data spatial data storage

Several OpenSource systems provide all the above resources for spatial data
OpenJump, GeoTools

But only partially provides the functionality for computing relations

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