Science as a Process

You may think of science as a large

and detailed body of knowledge,
but science is actually more of a
process than a set of facts.
The real focus of science is the
accumulation and revision of scientific
knowledge.
Science is a special way of gaining
knowledge that relies
on evidence and logic.
Evidence is used to continuously test ideas.
Through time, with repeated evidence
gathering and testing, scientific knowledge
advances.
We've been accumulating knowledge
of vaccines for more than two
centuries. The discovery of the first
vaccine, as well as the process of
vaccination, dates back to 1796.
Edward Jenner , English Doctor
Why is Science Important?
Medical advances such as the development of
vaccines are one of the most important benefits of
science, but science and scientific knowledge are
also crucial for most other human endeavors.
The Nature of Science
DEFINING SCIENCE

Science is a distinctive way of gaining

knowledge about the natural world that
starts with a question and then tries to
answer the question with evidence and
logic.
THINKING
LIKE A
SCIENTIST
Thinking like a scientist rests on certain underlying assumptions.
Scientists assume that:

• Nature can be understood through systematic study.

• Scientific ideas are open to revision.
• Sound scientific ideas withstand the test of time.
• Science cannot provide answers to all questions.
THEORIES IN SCIENCE
Scientific Theory

• a broad explanation of events that is widely

accepted by the scientific community.
To become a theory, an explanation must be
strongly supported by a great deal of evidence.
GERM THEORY: A HUMAN BIOLOGY
EXAMPLE

The germ theory of disease states that contagious

diseases are caused by "germs," or microorganisms,
which are organisms that are too small to be seen
without magnification. Microorganisms that cause
disease are called pathogens.
Human pathogens include bacteria and viruses,
among other microscopic entities. When pathogens
invade humans or other living hosts, they grow,
reproduce, and make their hosts sick.
Diseases caused by germs are contagious because the
microorganisms that cause them can spread from
person to person.
Germ Theory was first clearly
stated by an Italian physician
named Girolamo Fracastoroin the
mid-1500s. Fracastoro proposed
that contagious diseases are caused
by transferable "seed-like entities,"
which we now call germs.
According to Fracastoro, germs
spread through populations, making
many people sick, through direct or
indirect contact between
individuals.
Throughout the later 1800s, more formal
investigations were conducted on the
relationship between germs and disease.
Some of the most important was undertaken by
Louis Pasteur.
Pasteur was a French
chemist who did careful
experiments to show that
fermentation, food
spoilage, and certain
diseases are caused by
microorganisms.
Louis Pasteur
He discovered the cause of puerperal fever in 1879 and determined
it was an infection caused by the bacterium Streptococcus
pyogenes.

Although Pasteur was not the first person to propose germ theory,
his investigations clearly supported it. He also became a strong
proponent of the theory and managed to convince most of the
scientific community of its validity. For these reasons, Pasteur is
often regarded as the father of germ theory.
DOING SCIENCE
Scientific Investigation

a plan for asking questions and testing

possible answers in order to advance
scientific knowledge.
Scientific
Method
Scientific Experiments
• An experiment is a special type of scientific
investigation that is performed under
controlled conditions. Like all investigations,
an experiment generates evidence to test a
hypothesis.
• An experiment generally tests how one particular variable is
affected by some other specific variable. The affected variable is
called the dependent variable, or outcome variable. The variable
that affects the dependent variable is called the independent
variable. It is also called the manipulated variable because this is
the variable that is manipulated by the researcher. Any other
variables (control variable) that might also affect the dependent
variable are held constant, so the effects of the independent
variable alone are measured.
SAMPLING
• The sample in an experiment or other investigation consists of the
individuals or events that are actually studied. It rarely includes
the entire population because doing so would likely be impractical
or even impossible.
Experimental group (Treatment Group)

Control group (Untreated Group)

• A PLACEBO is a "fake" treatment that
actually has no effect on health. It is included
in trials of vaccines and other medical
treatments so subjects will not know in which
group (control or experimental) they have been
placed.
Placebo Effect

- a psychologically-based reaction to a
treatment that occurs just because the subject is
treated, even if the treatment has no real effect.
•Experiments in which a placebo is used
are generally blind experiments
because the subjects are "blind" to their
experimental group.
• Often, even the researchers do not know which
subjects are in each group. This type of
experiment is called a double-blind experiment
because both subjects and researchers are
"blind" to which subjects are in each group.
Human Biology
• the scientific study of the human species that
includes the fascinating story of human
evolution and a detailed accounting of our
genetics, anatomy, physiology, and ecology.
 In short, .Human Biology focuses on how we got
here, how we function, and the role we play in the
natural world.
Importantly, this helps us understand human health –
how to stay healthy and how diseases and injuries
can be treated