Construction Equipment

(CEng5203)

1
 INTRODUCTION
 Construction activities require different types,
sizes, and groupings of equipment for earth
moving, excavating, and lifting.
• There is a piece of equipment for practically
any work activity, large or small.
 Materials, money, manpower and
machineries (the 4 m's) are usual resources
recognized in most situations.

2
 Contd.
 The dependency and need for heavy
construction equipment have grown with the
size and complexity of construction projects.
 The development of automated heavy
construction equipment for earthmoving,
excavating, and lifting occurred in the last two
centuries.

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 Types of construction
equipment
• Common types of construction equipment
– Intermittent type
– Continuous flow type
– Mixed type

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 Contd.
• Intermittent type
– These types of equipment have intermittent cycles
of work. Such machines operated on series of work
cycles each of which is complete cycle in itself.
The rates at which work cycles are carried out
determine the output of the machine.

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 Contd.
• Example of intermittent equipment
a) bull dozer
b) scraper
c) power Shovels
d) concrete Mixers
e) drag lines

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Contd.

Dozer
Scraper

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 Contd.

Shovel
8
 Contd.

Transit concrete Mixer

9
 Contd.

Dragline 10
 Contd.
• Continuous flow type
– This type of equipment has a continuous flow
of work turned out. Example
a) air compressors
b) belt conveyors

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Contd.

Air compressor 12
 Contd.
• Compressed air is used for:
– Drilling rock
– Driving piles
– Pumping
– Cleaning etc.

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Contd.

14
Contd.

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 Contd.

belt conveyor 16
 Contd.
• Mixed type
– These have the characteristics of both intermittent and
continuous types. This class of equipment is often
operated continuously over a defined surface area. But it
requires operation turned down after completion of a
particular work and requires its re-position to be adjusted
again so as to resume production on another area.
Example: All motor graders

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 Classification Of Equipment According To The
Nature Of Automation
• Manually operated Equipment
• Semi-Automatic Equipment
• Fully Automatic Equipment

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 Classification Of Equipment According To Standardization
Of The Machine.
1.Standard Equipment
• Commercially manufactured equipment with standard
specifications, to be most commonly used on a particular type
of project
• This type of equipment is designed to meet the wide demand
of the equipment users
2.Special Equipment
• Equipment which is manufactured for use on a single project or for a
special type of operation
• Initial investment in such equipment is comparatively high
• Recommended that it may only be purchased when the total cost with
profit is recoverable during its use in the project. 19
 Advantages of Standard Equipment
• It is easily available.
• Replacement parts are readily available from the
manufacturer.
• It can be used economically on more than one
project
• It is easily used for variety of applications.
• Its initial cost is much less than a special
equipment.
• It can be disposed off easily at an attractive resale
price.

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 Equipment for earth work:
Earthworks involve the basic operation of
either:
• Removal of material (first removal then
transfer to a different site)
• Placement of new material (first placement
then leveling/compacting)

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 Classification of earthwork equipment

I. Excavation equipment
II. Excavation and Moving Equipment
III. Carrying/Hauling Equipment

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 I. Excavation equipment
• When planning what type of earthworks
equipment to use on a construction
project the following should at least be
considered:
• Physical job conditions – location, project size
• Type of soil/base
• Specification of the machine (output capacity)
• Condition of the machine
• Method of operation

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 Trenching Equipment
• Trenching Machine (Trencher)
– A trencher is a piece of construction
equipment used to dig trenches, especially for
laying pipes or cables, for installing drainage,
or in preparation for trench warfare.
– Trenchers come in different sizes and may
use different digging implements, depending
on the required width and depth of the trench
and the hardness of the surface to be cut.

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 1. Wheel Trencher
• Bucket Wheel Trencher
– The wheel trencher consists of a wheel with a
number of buckets attached sitting atop a set
of crawler tracks.
– The bucket is used for digging the dirt from
the trench.
– The buckets move in one continuous stream
and when the bucket reaches the highest
point it can reach, the dirt is tipped out of the
bucket and is removed through a chute onto a
conveyor belt that runs laterally to the wheel. 25
 Contd.
• Rockwheel Trencher
– A rockwheel trencher is composed of a toothed metal
wheel.
– It is cheaper to operate and maintain than chain-type
trenchers.
– It can work in hard or soft soils, either homogeneous
(compact rocks, silts, sands) or heterogeneous (split or
broken rock, alluvia, moraines).
– They are also used to cut pavement  for road
maintenance and to gain access to utilities under roads.

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 Contd.

Bucket wheel trencher Rock Wheel trencher

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 2. Chain Trencher
• chain trencher cuts with a digging chain or belt
that is driven around a rounded metal frame, or
boom.
• This type of trencher can cut ground that is too
hard to cut with a bucket-type excavator, and can
also cut narrow and deep trenches.
• The chain trencher is used for digging wider
trenches (telecommunication, electricity,
drainage, water, gas, sanitation, etc.) especially
in rural areas.
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 Contd.
• The excavated materials can be removed
by conveyor belt reversible either on the
right or on the left side.

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 3. Micro Trencher
• A micro trencher is a "small rockwheel" specially
designed for work in urban area. It is fitted with a
cutting wheel that cuts a micro trench with smaller
dimensions than can be achieved with
conventional trench digging equipment.
• Micro trench widths range from about 30 to 130
mm (1.2 to 5.1 in) with a depth of 500 mm (20 in)
or less.
• With a micro trencher, the structure of the road is
maintained and there is no associated damage to
the road.
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 Contd.
• A micro trencher can work on sidewalks or
in narrow streets of cities, and can cut
harder ground than a chain trencher,
including cutting through solid stone.
• They are also used to cut pavement for
road maintenance and to gain access to
utilities under roads.

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Micro Trencher
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 Dredging Equipment
• Dredging is excavation from a riverbed, lake or
sea, for the purpose of deepening the river bed
(in a navigation canals) or to collect material to
be used on land (reclaiming land or as land fill).
• It is also used as a way to replenish sand on
some public beaches, where sand has been lost
because of coastal erosion
• To achieve this, dredging machines called
dredges are used, which are excavators
mounted on the floating barges

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 Types of dredging equipment
• Dipper dredges
• Ladder dredges
• Suction dredges

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 Dipper dredges
• These act as underwater
shovels, draglines or
clamshells mounted on a
floating hull.
• The buckets go down to
the river bed before
grabbing the material and
raising it back up to the
surface.

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 Ladder dredges
• Here, a steel ladder
extends down to the river
bed, at a certain angle
where at the bottom,
buckets are used to
excavate the material and
travel up the conveyor
which is supported on the
inclined ladder.
• At the top, the bucket then
deposits the material into
a hopper before returning
back down to the river bed
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 Suction dredges
• A suction dredge
(also called a pump
excavator) consists of
a heavy duty pump
mounted on a barge
with the suction line
supported on a ladder
which extends downs
to the river bed.

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 Tunnels
• Tunnels are used for underground road and rail
transport, for hydro and sewage conduits,
drainage and many other services.
• The methods adopted for the construction of
tunnels vary from hand excavation to
sophisticated power driven tunneling machines,
depending upon the soil type, ground conditions
and length of tunnel.

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 Specific works on tunnels
1. Tunnel Excavation
2. Tunnel Lining

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 1. Tunnel Excavation
• Hand tools
• Explosives
• TBMs/Moles
• Spoil Removal

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 Hand Tools
• Excavation using hand tools like picks,
shovel, etc… is the earliest form of tunnel
excavation and has been used for
thousands of years. For speed up work,
hand operated drills are used.

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 Explosives
• Commonly used in “drill and blast” tunnel
excavation especially for rock excavation
• Dynamite and ammonium nitrate are the
two commonly used explosives

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 TBM/Moles
• Introduced in the 1960’s, has been
revolutionized tunnelling in terms of safety,
cost and speed of operation.
• It has a long body which consist of cutting
head, tunnel lining body and a belt
conveyor for slurry removal.

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 Spoil Removal
• For hard material a haulage equipment is
used or via another belt conveyor, for soft
material a slurry pump is commonly used.
• Otherwise, rock loader and carriers are
used. In rail construction, dumper are also
used to haul the material.

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 2. Tunnel Lining
• Provision for tunnel lining depends on the
on the soil condition.
• It can be permanent or temporary

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 Temporary tunnel lining
• It is required in weak rock just after fresh
excavation to avoid problem of collapse.
• Steel beams were used in intervals
• Recently, cement guns are used to supply
rapid drying concrete, shotcrete or gunite,
for tunnel walls

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 Permanent tunnel linings
• It can be reinforced concrete or precast
concrete.
• For TBM works, steel lining are commonly
used for ease of construction.

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 Method of excavation
• Full face heading without lining
• Shield tunneling
• Tunnel boring machines (TBMs)

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 Full face heading without lining
• Where the rock is stable and self
supporting, excavation of the heading in
full face is suitable for tunnels up to about
200m2 in cross section.
• The procedure is to drill holes for
explosives and advance cross section

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 Shield tunneling
• Where the linear plate method is
uneconomical or where the ground will not
stand unsupported long enough to enable
the permanent lining to be erected, then
the shield technique is likely to be
selected. The shield acts as a steel casing
tube

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Shield tunneling

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Tunnel boring machines (TBMs)
• Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs), also
called ‘mole’, after the tunneling animal,
have revolutionized tunneling in terms of
speed, cost and safety of operation.

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Tunnel boring machines (TBMs)

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 Power shovel
• This is the basic equipment for excavation,
capable of excavating all types of earth.
• Shovels normally consist of a revolving deck
with a power plant, driving and controlling
mechanisms, usually a counterweight, and a
front attachment, such as a boom or crane which
supports a handle with a digger at the end.
• The machinery is mounted on a base platform
with tracks or wheels.

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 Types of power shovel

Hydraulic operated Rope operated

Forces acting during digging action of a hydraulic shovel 55

 Comparison Between The Two Shovel
Hydraulic Operated Rope operated
Swivel bucket Fixed bucket
Short arm action with Long arm action,
potentially greater output causing a reduction
and greater versatility in output.
Light arrangement Heavy arm needed
No emptying problems Cohesive soil causes
emptying difficulties

Medium size machine, Large machine

approximately 25m3 max. possible 40-50m3
bucket size max. bucket size 56
 BACKHOE
• The digging action
results from the drag
or pull of the bucket
towards the machine.
• It is very precise and
as it is most suited to
excavation below the
machine level.
• it is commonly used
for excavation of
trenches, footings,
basements 57
 Types Of Backhoe

Rope operated
Hydraulic operated
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 Modern Backhoe
• The hoe is commonly fitted on the back of the
wheeled tractor unit (hence, this part is called
a back hoe), with a power shovel on the front.
• This hybrid machine is extremely popular and
versatile, as the front shovel can be used for
general excavation, while the backhoe is used
for footing excavation.

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 Grabbing Crane
• The grab is really a crane fitted with a grabbing bucket.
• The excavating efficiency is dependent upon the self-
weight of the attachment and the machine is therefore
limited to use in fairly loose soils
Types Of Grabbing Crane

Hydraulic Operated 60
Rope Operated
 II. Excavation and Moving
Equipment
• These machines differ from those
mentioned earlier as they can complete all
the excavation and moving works
themselves, that is no other hauling
equipment is required.

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 Bulldozer
• The bulldozer is a very versatile machine
and is used frequently for:
– Stripping topsoil
– Clearing vegetation
– Shallow excavation
– pushing scrapers, maintaining haul roads
– opening up pilot roads
– spreading and grading

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Stripping topsoil

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shallow excavation

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65
Opening up pilot roads

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spreading and grading

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 Types of dozer based on application and
blade design
• Bull dozer The excavated soil gets a rolling movement
and quick vertical displacement due to the slightly concave
blade profile.
• Angle dozer the blade of the dozer is vertical but inclined
so as to push its load at 30° to the direction of travel, thus
piling material on one side only
• Tilt dozer here one corner of the blade can be raised by
up to 250mm, thus providing a single tip of the blade to start
excavation for a ditch or trench or if the ground is hard.
• Push dozer this is a heavy tractor unit with a small
rectangular plate called a pusher plate instead of a blade
• Tree dozer this has a V-blade so that trees can be
removed, by driving into the tree base to cut and then push
it away in a single operation.

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Types of blades of dozer

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Samples of dozer

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 Grader
• A grader is a device which picks up the
load through scraping the ground as it
travels over it. It is commonly used in road
construction and earthworks projects, to
push and grade earth/sub base, etc. to a
desired profile

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Schematic diagram

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 LOADER
 The dozer blade has evolved into such a design that
it can be used not only as a pusher but also as a
loader.
• The tractor loader is the most common type of earth
moving machine worldwide .
The crawler-tractor-mounted loader wheel-tractor-mounted
loader

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 Scraper
• A scraper or pan is a digging and carrying
device which picks ups its own load through
scraping the ground, transports it over the
required distance and after discharging and
spreading the load returns to the pit for picking
up the next load.
• Approximately 50 – 100 m of travel is required to
fill the bowl.
• Excavation is carried out in layers of from 150-
300 mm in depth.

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 Contd.
• During the discharging stage ejection takes
place whilst the unit is moving:
• In general, towed (pulled)scraper capacities
range from about 8 up to 30 m3
• Motorized scrapers from 15 up to 50 m3 heaped
capacity (heaping at a slope of 1:1).
• Unlike the towed scraper the motorized scrapers
engine is self-contained within the machine and
power thus supplied directly to the wheels.

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Schematic diagram

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SCRAPER
 Rippers
• Ripping of rock, rather than drilling and
blasting (of explosives) has revolutionized
rock excavation and provides an effective,
efficient and inexpensive way of breaking
rock.
• Heavy duty ‘rippers’ are typically tracked
machines with a huge arm and ripping
tooth at the base.

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Contd.

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 Dragline
• This machine is so named because of its
prominent operation of dragging the
bucket against the material to be dug.
• it has a long light crane boom, and the
bucket which is the digging tool is loosely
attached to the boom through the cables

81
 Contd.

Schematic diagram Excavation cycle

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Contd.

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III. Carrying/Hauling Equipment
• Hauling is the movement of material by
mobile units, which can either be confined
to site or can be moving loads to-from site
via roads. Haulage jobs on construction
projects include:
– Haulage of building materials
– Haulage of construction equipment
– Carrying and disposal of excavated earth
 Contd.
• These are classified on the basis of method of
dumping the load
1. Dump trucks
a) Side or rear dump trucks
b) Bottom dump trucks
2. Dumpers

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 Dump trucks
• These are used for earth moving purpose.
• The selection of the type of dump trucks for a specific job
depend on the soil condition.
a) Side or rear dump trucks-
 These are heavy duty trucks with strongly built body
which is hinged on the truck chassis at the rear end
and one side respectively, and can be fitted to the rear
in the case of rear dump and to the hinged side in
case of the side dump, through the action of hydraulic
jacks.
 These trucks are suitable for use in hauling wet clay,
sand, gravel, quarry rocks etc.
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Side dump truck

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Rear dump truck

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 Contd.
b) Bottom dump trucks
 These are similar to semi-trailers in which their front is
supported on the rear of the hauling tractor and
their rear is resting on their own wheels.
 The body of the truck remains in the same position and
the discharge of the material takes place through its
bottom after opening of two longitudinal gates.
 The gates are hinged to the side of the body.
 These trucks are suitable for use in hauling free flowing
material, such as, sand, gravel, dry earth, hard clay
etc.

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Bottom dump truck

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 Dumpers
• High speed pneumatic wheeled trucks
• Short chassis (frame)
• Strong bodies
• Loading, hauling and dumping is done very fast
as compared to other equipment
• Suitable for short hauls on rough roads

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Dumper

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 Lifting Equipment
• Present day construction involves handling
of heavy loads with speed, reliability and
economy. To help achieve this, cranes are
often used on site to move such
construction materials and equipment,
both in vertical and horizontal
directions. They are particularly useful
when access on site is restricted.

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 Types of cranes
I. Stationary cranes
II. Mobile Cranes
III. Overhead cranes

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 I. Stationary cranes
• Guy derrick
– The guyed derrick consists of a single boom or
mast. The mast stands vertically and is guyed
to anchorages in a similar fashion to shear
legs
– The arrangement allows both luffing (changing
of radius) and slewing (turning), but lifting is
usually only attempted under a guy rope. It is
possible to arrange for full 360 degree slewing

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Contd.

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Guy cranes
 Contd.
• Derrick cranes
– These are usually electrically driven, which is
quick to erect and popular in construction. It
has components such as the guy, pivot, mast,
bull wheel, boom and load hook.
– The whole arrangement is seated upon a
triangular frame of lattice construction, with
the center mast free to rotate on bearings at
its top and bottom supports.

97
Contd.

Derrick cranes
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 Contd.
• Tower cranes
– These cranes are usually employed in the
erection of tall buildings. Its components are:
undercarriage, slewing platform, tower with
operator’s cabin and jibs. They are very
structurally efficient but need careful operation
and are also limited by strong winds.

99
Contd.

Tower cranes
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 II. Mobile cranes
• Truck cranes
– these are extremely popular worldwide in
construction, as they offer speed and low
cost. They have capacities up to 400 tons,
and are preferable for several reasons

101
Contd.

Truck cranes 102

 Contd.
• Crawler cranes
– These are much slower to get ready, that is
arrival on site and may take days to set up
– Crawler cranes are useful when the ground is
poor, that is soft of rough terrain

103
Contd.

Crawler cranes 104

 Contd.
• Cantilever boom crane
– A cantilever-boom, however is pivoted at a
much higher position on the superstructure
and so provides greater clearance, thereby
facilitating the handling of bulky loads

105
Contd.

Cantilever boom crane 106

 Contd.
• Mobile telescopic boom crane
– The mobile telescopic version is suitable for
similar tasks but is more versatile and is
capable of traveling at 20-30km/h quickly
moving from site to site in a particular area.

107
 Contd.

Mobile telescopic boom crane 108

 Contd.
• Truck-mounted telescopic boom crane
– It can travel at normal lorry speeds on the
public highways is achievable and when on
site takes only a few minutes to prepare for
the lifting operations
– Cranes with a telescopic boom are available
from about 10 to 800 tones capacity

109
 Contd.

Truck-mounted telescopic boom crane

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 III. Overhead cranes
• Normally used for industrial complex
where transferring of equipment is limited
only in industrial area
• Most commonly used in pre-stressing
plant where transferring of structural
members are critical

111
 Contd.
• Gantry cranes
– Electric overhead gantry cranes are used for
handling loads over a rectangular area and
consists of a hoisting mechanism, a
carriage/crab and girder

112
Contd.

113
Gantry cranes
 Contd.
• Overhead traveling cranes
– Traveling cranes are also used in a
rectangular area, and are similar to gantry
except that the girders are supported on legs
rather than by gantry tracks.

114
 Contd.

115
Overhead traveling cranes
The Output of Power Shovels
• The actual output of a power shovel is affected
by numerous factors, including the following:
I. Class of material
II. Depth of cut
III. Angle of swing
IV. Job conditions
V. Management conditions
VI. Size of hauling units
VII.Skill of the operator
VIII.Physical condition of the shovel
116
 Contd.
• Production (Output) of Shovel
– Method 1-
• The production of the cable shovel is determined
from the generated data as given in table1 and 2.
In this method, the output of a shovel is expressed
in bank-measure volume per hour. The capacity
of a dipper (bucket) is based on its struck volume.
In excavating some classes of materials, it is
possible for a dipper to pick up a heaping volume
which may exceed the struck volume.

117
Contd.

118
 Contd.
I. The effect of the depth of cut on the output of a
shovel is illustrated in table 2 below.
– In the table the percent of optimum depth of
cut is obtained by dividing the actual depth of
cut by the optimum depth for the given
material and dipper, then multiplying the result
by 100 that is:
• Percent optimum depth =

119
 Contd.
Table 2. Conversion factors for height /depth of cut and angle of swing for a power shovel

120
 Contd.
• Optimum height of cut ranges from 30-50% of maximum
digging height, with the lower percentage being
representative of easy-to-load materials, such as loam,
sand, or gravel.
• Hard-to- load materials, sticky clay, or blasted rock,
necessitate a greater optimum height, in the range of
50% the maximum digging height value.
• Common earth would require slightly less than 40% of
the maximum digging height.

121
 Contd.
II. The angle of swing of a power shovel is the
horizontal angle, expressed in degrees,
between the position of the dipper when it is
excavating and the position when it is
discharging the load.
– The total time in a cycle includes digging,
swinging to the dumping position, dumping,
and returning to the digging position.
– If the angle of swing is increased, the time for a
cycle will be increased, while if the angle swing
is decreased, the time for a cycle will be
decreased.
122
 Contd.
– Table 2 illustrates the effect of the angle of
swing on the output of a shovel. The output of
a shovel operating at 900 swing and optimum
depth, which is obtained from table 1 should
be multiplied by the proper conversion factor
from table 2 in order to obtain the probable
output for any given depth and angle of swing.

123
 Contd.
III. There are certain conditions at every job over which the
owner of the shovel has no control . These conditions
must be considered in estimating the probable output of
a shovel.
– Job conditions may be classified as excellent, good,
fair, and poor. There is no uniform standard which
may be used as a guide in classifying a job.
– Each job planner must use his own judgment and
experience in deciding which condition best
represents his job. Table 3 shows the effect of job
conditions on the output of a power shovel.

124
 Contd.
Table 3. Factors for job and management conditions

Management conditions
Job conditions
Excellent Good Fair Poor

Excellent 0.84 0.81 0.76 0.70

Good 0.78 0.75 0.71 0.65

Fair 0.72 0.69 0.65 0.60

Poor 0.63 0.61 0.57 0.52

125
 Contd.
• Method 2-
– In this method the production of hydraulic
shovel is calculated using the following
equation,

126
 Contd.
• There are four elements in the production of a
shovel:
– Load bucket
– Swing with load
– Dump load
– Return swing
• Note: A shovel does not travel during the digging
and the loading cycle.

127
 Contd.
• Typical cycle element times under average
conditions, for 3-to 5 cy-size shovels, are:
1. Load bucket 7-9 sec.
2. Swing with load 4-6 sec.
3. Dump load 2-4 sec.
4. Return swing 4-5 sec.

128
 Contd.
• Rated-heaped capacities represent a net section
bucket volume; therefore, they must be
corrected to average bucket payload based on
the characteristics of the material being handled.
• Manufacturers usually suggest factors,
commonly called “Fill factors” for making such
corrections.
• Fill factors are percentages that when multiplied
by a rated- heaped capacity, adjust the volume
by accounting for how the specific materials will
load into the bucket.
129
 Contd.
Table 4. Fill factor for front shovel buckets
Material Fill Factor* (%)
Bank clay; earth 100-110
Rock-earth mixture 105-115
Rock, poorly blasted 85-100
Rock, well blasted 100-110
Shale; sandstone- standing bank 85-100

*percentage of heaped bucket capacity

130
 Contd.
• Table 5 below gives representative swell values for
different class of earth. These values will vary with the
extent of loosening and compaction.
Table 5. Representative properties of earth and rock.

131
 Contd.
• Transportation Research Board(TRB) studies
have shown that actual production times for
shovel used in highway construction excavation
operation are 50 to 75% of available working
time. Production efficiency is only 30 to 45 min
per hour.

132
 Hoe production
• Primarily used for excavation below grade.
• Widely utilized for trenching work
• In addition to excavating the trench it can
perform other trenching functions:
- Laying pipe bedding
- Placing pipe
- Pulling trench shields
- Back filling the trench

133
 Contd.
• Optimum depth of cut for a hoe will depend on
the type of materials being excavated and
bucket size and type. As a rule, the optimum
depth of cut for a hoe is usually in the range of
30 to 60% of the machine’s maximum digging
depth.

134
 Contd.
Table 10. Representative dimensions, loading clearance, and lifting capacity hydraulic crawler hoes

135
 Contd.

Table 11. Fill factors for hydraulic hoe bucket

136
 Contd.
Table 12. Excavation cycle times for hydraulic crawler hoes under average conditions. *

137
 Loader
• Fill factor for loader
– The heaped capacity of a loader bucket is based on
SAE (society of automotive engineers). That standard
specifies a 2:1 angle of repose for the material above
the struck load.
– The fill factor correction for a loader bucket adjusts
heaped capacity based on the type of material being
handled and the type of loader, wheel or truck.
– Mainly because of the relationship between
traction and developed breakout force, the
bucket fill factors for the two types of loaders
are different.
138
 Contd.
Table 9. Bucket fill factors for wheel and track loaders

139
 Contd.
• Operating load
– A wheel loader is limited to an operating load,
by weight, that is less than 50% of rated full-
turn static tipping load.
– In the case of track loaders, the operating
load is limited to less than 35% of static
tipping load

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• Production rate for wheel loader
– Wheel loaders work in repetitive cycles,
constantly reversing direction, loading,
turning, and dumping.
– The production rate for a wheel loader will
depends on the:
– Fixed time required to load the bucket, maneuver with
four reversal of direction, and dump the load.
– Time required to travel from the loading to the dumping
position.
– Time required to return to the loading position.
– The actual volume of material hauled each trip.
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 Contd.
Table 8. Fixed cycle time for loaders

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 Contd.
Table 6. Representative specification for wheel loaders

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 Contd.
Table 7. Representative specification for track loaders

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