Process Management

In most systems it is necessary to synchronize processes

and jobs, a task that is also performed by modules of
processor management. The job scheduler can be viewed
as a macro scheduler, choosing which jobs will run. The
process scheduler can be viewed as a micro scheduler,
assigning processors to the processes associated with
scheduled jobs.
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The user views his job as a collection of tasks he wants the
computer system to perform for him. The user may
subdivide his job into job steps, which are sequentially
processed sub tasks (e.g., compile, load, execute). The
system creates processes to do the computation of the job
steps.
Job scheduling is concerned with the management of jobs,
and processor scheduling is concerned with the
management of processes. In either case, the processor is
the key resource.
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In a non-multiprogramming system there is a one-to-one
correspondence between a job and its process and only
one job is allowed in the system at a time. In such a simple
system the
Job scheduler chooses one job to run. Once it is chosen, a
process is created and assigned to the processor.
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Why
Early computers allowed only one program to be executed at a
time. This program had complete control of the system and had
access to all the system’s resources. In contrast, contemporary
computer systems allow multiple programs to be loaded into
memory and executed concurrently. This evolution required
firmer control and more compartmentalization of the various
programs; and these needs resulted in the notion of a process.
A process is the unit of work in a modern time-sharing system.
The more complex the operating system is, the more it is
expected to do on behalf of its users.
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A system therefore consists of a collection of processes:
operating system processes executing system code and
user processes executing user code. Potentially, all these
processes can execute concurrently, with the CPU (or CPUs)
multiplexed among them. By switching the CPU between
processes, the operating system can make the computer
more productive.
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What is a Process?
Process is the execution of a program that performs the
actions specified in that program. It can be defined as an
execution unit where a program runs.
The OS helps you to create, schedule, and terminates the
processes which is used by CPU. A process created by the
main process is called a child process.
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A process will need certain resources - such as CPU time,
memory, files, and I/O devices - to accomplish its task.
These resources are allocated to the process either when it
is created or while it is executing.
A process is the unit of work in most systems. Systems
consist of a collection of processes:
• operating-system processes execute system code, and
• user processes execute user code.
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Traditionally a process contained only a single thread of
control as it ran.
Modern operating systems now support processes that
have multiple threads.
There may exist more than one process in the system which
may require the same resource at the same time. Therefore,
the operating system has to manage all the processes and
the resources in a convenient and efficient way.
Some resources may need to be executed by one process at
one time to maintain the consistency otherwise the system
can become inconsistent and deadlock may occur.
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Responsibilities of OS:
• Scheduling processes and threads on the CPUs.
• Creating and deleting both user and system processes.
• Suspending and resuming processes.
• Providing mechanisms for process synchronization.
• Providing mechanisms for process communication.
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Program vs Process:
A process is a program in execution. For example, when we write
a program in C or C++ and compile it, the compiler creates binary
code. The original code and binary code are both programs.
When we actually run the binary code, it becomes a process.

A process is an ‘active’ entity instead of a program, which is

considered a ‘passive’ entity. A single program can create many
processes when run multiple times; for example, when we open
a .exe or binary file multiple times, multiple instances begin
(multiple processes are created). .
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Process Architecture:
• Stack: The Stack stores temporary data
like function parameters, returns
addresses, and local variables.
• Heap: Allocates memory, which may be
processed during its run time.
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Process Architecture:
• Data: It contains the variable.
• Text: Text Section includes the current
activity, which is represented by the value
of the Program Counter.
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Process State
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Process Architecture:
There are mainly seven stages of a process which are:
• New: The new process is created when a specific
program calls from secondary memory/ hard disk to
primary memory/ RAM a
• Ready: In a ready state, the process should be loaded
into the primary memory, which is ready for execution.
Whenever a process is created, it directly enters in the
ready state, in which, it waits for the CPU to be assigned.
The OS picks the new processes from the secondary
memory and put all of them in the main memory.
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Process Architecture:
• Waiting: The process is waiting for the allocation of CPU
time and other resources for execution.
• Executing/ Running: The process is an execution state.
• Blocked: It is a time interval when a process is waiting for
an event like I/O operations to complete.
When a process waits for a certain resource to be assigned
or for the input from the user then the OS move this
process to the block or wait state and assigns the CPU to
the other processes.
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Process Architecture:
• Suspended: Suspended state defines the time when a
process is ready for execution but has not been placed in
the ready queue by OS.
• Suspend Ready state: A process in the ready state, which
is moved to secondary memory from the main memory
due to lack of the resources (mainly primary memory) is
called in the suspend ready state.
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Process Architecture:
• If the main memory is full and a higher priority process
comes for the execution then the OS have to make the
room for the process in the main memory by throwing
the lower priority process out into the secondary
memory. The suspend ready processes remain in the
secondary memory until the main memory gets
available.
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Process Architecture:
• Suspend wait: Instead of removing the process from the
ready queue, it's better to remove the blocked process
which is waiting for some resources in the main memory.
Since it is already waiting for some resource to get
available hence it is better if it waits in the secondary
memory and make room for the higher priority process.
These processes complete their execution once the main
memory gets available and their wait is finished.
• Terminated: Terminated state specifies the time when a
process is terminated
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Process Control Block (PCB):
Every process is represented
in the operating system by a
process control block, which
is also called a task control
block.
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Process Control Block (PCB):
• Process state: A process can be new, ready, running,
waiting, etc.
• Program counter: The program counter lets you know
the address of the next instruction, which should be
executed for that process.
• CPU registers: This component includes accumulators,
index and general-purpose registers, and information of
condition code.
• CPU scheduling information: This component includes a
process priority, pointers for scheduling queues, and
various other scheduling parameters.
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Process Control Block (PCB):
• Accounting and business information: It includes the
amount of CPU and time utilities like real time used, job
or process numbers, etc.
• Memory-management information: This information
includes the value of the base and limit registers, the
page, or segment tables. This depends on the memory
system, which is used by the operating system.
• I/O status information: This block includes a list of open
files, the list of I/O devices that are allocated to the
process, etc. For example, devices allocated to the
process, open files, etc
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Operations on the Process
• Creation: Once the process is created, it will be ready
and come into the ready queue (main memory) and will
be ready for the execution.
• Scheduling: Out of the many processes present in the
ready queue, the Operating system chooses one process
and start executing it. Selecting the process which is to
be executed next, is known as scheduling.
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Operations on the Process
• Execution: Once the process is scheduled for the
execution, the processor starts executing it. Process may
come to the blocked or wait state during the execution
then in that case the processor starts executing the other
processes.
• Deletion/killing: Once the purpose of the process gets
over then the OS will kill the process. The Context of the
process (PCB) will be deleted and the process gets
terminated by the Operating system.
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Context Switching: The process of saving the context of one
process and loading the context of another process is
known as Context Switching. In simple terms, it is like
loading and unloading the process from the running state to
the ready state.
When does context switching happen?
• When a high-priority process comes to a ready state (i.e.
with higher priority than the running process)
• An Interrupt occurs
• User and kernel-mode switch (It is not necessary though)
• Preemptive CPU scheduling used.
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Context Switch vs Mode Switch:
A mode switch occurs when the CPU privilege level is
changed, for example when a system call is made or a fault
occurs. The kernel works in more a privileged mode than a
standard user task. If a user process wants to access things
that are only accessible to the kernel, a mode switch must
occur. The currently executing process need not be changed
during a mode switch.

A mode switch typically occurs for a process context switch

to occur. Only the kernel can cause a context switch.
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CPU-Bound vs I/O-Bound Processes: A CPU-bound process
requires more CPU time or spends more time in the running
state.
An I/O-bound process requires more I/O time and less CPU
time. An I/O-bound process spends more time in the
waiting state.
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What is a Thread?
A thread is a path of execution within a process. A process
can contain multiple threads.
Why Multithreading?
A thread is also known as lightweight process. The idea is to
achieve parallelism by dividing a process into multiple
threads. For example, in a browser, multiple tabs can be
different threads. MS Word uses multiple threads: one
thread to format the text, another thread to process inputs,
etc.
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Most modern operating systems have extended the process
concept to allow a process to have multiple threads of
execution and thus to perform more than one task at a
time. This feature is especially beneficial on multi core
systems, where multiple threads can run in parallel.
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Process vs Thread?
The primary difference is that threads within the same
process run in a shared memory space, while processes run
in separate memory spaces.
Threads are not independent of one another like processes
are, and as a result threads share with other threads their
code section, data section, and OS resources (like open files
and signals). But, like process, a thread has its own program
counter (PC), register set, and stack space.
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Process vs Thread?
The primary difference is that threads within the same
process run in a shared memory space, while processes run
in separate memory spaces.
Threads are not independent of one another like processes
are, and as a result threads share with other threads their
code section, data section, and OS resources (like open files
and signals). But, like process, a thread has its own program
counter (PC), register set, and stack space.
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Advantages of Thread over Process
• Responsiveness: If the process is divided into multiple
threads, if one thread completes its execution, then its
output can be immediately returned.
• Faster context switch: Context switch time between
threads is lower compared to process context switch.
Process context switching requires more overhead from
the CPU.
• Effective utilization of multiprocessor system: If we have
multiple threads in a single process, then we can
schedule multiple threads on multiple processor. This will
make process execution faster.
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Advantages of Thread over Process
• Resource sharing: Resources like code, data, and files can
be shared among all threads within a process.
• Communication: Communication between multiple
threads is easier, as the threads shares common address
space. while in process we have to follow some specific
communication technique for communication between
two process.
• Enhanced throughput of the system: If a process is
divided into multiple threads, and each thread function is
considered as one job, then the number of jobs
completed per unit of time is increased, thus increasing
the throughput of the system.
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There are two types of threads.
• User Level Thread
• Kernel Level Thread
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Process Queues:
The Operating system manages various types of queues for each
of the process states. The PCB related to the process is also
stored in the queue of the same state. If the Process is moved
from one state to another state then its PCB is also unlinked from
the corresponding queue and added to the other state queue in
which the transition is made. The OS can use different policies to
manage each queue (FIFO, Round Robin, Priority, etc.).
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There are the following queues maintained by the Operating
system.
• Job Queue: In starting, all the processes get stored in the job
queue. It is maintained in the secondary memory. The long
term scheduler (Job scheduler) picks some of the jobs and put
them in the primary memory.
• Ready Queue: Ready queue is maintained in primary memory.
The short term scheduler picks the job from the ready queue
and dispatch to the CPU for the execution.
• Waiting Queue: When the process needs some IO operation in
order to complete its execution, OS changes the state of the
process from running to waiting. The context (PCB) associated
with the process gets stored on the waiting queue which will
be used by the Processor when the process finishes the IO.
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Process Schedulers:
Long term scheduler: Long term scheduler is also known as job
scheduler. It chooses the processes from the pool (secondary
memory) and keeps them in the ready queue maintained in the
primary memory.
Long Term scheduler mainly controls the degree of
Multiprogramming. The purpose of long term scheduler is to
choose a perfect mix of IO bound and CPU bound processes
among the jobs present in the pool.
If the job scheduler chooses more IO bound processes then all of
the jobs may reside in the blocked state all the time and the CPU
will remain idle most of the time. This will reduce the degree of
Multiprogramming. Therefore, the Job of long term scheduler is
very critical and may affect the system for a very long time.
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Process Schedulers:
Short term scheduler: Short term scheduler is also known as CPU
scheduler. It selects one of the Jobs from the ready queue and
dispatch to the CPU for the execution.
A scheduling algorithm is used to select which job is going to be
dispatched for the execution. The Job of the short term scheduler
can be very critical in the sense that if it selects job whose CPU
burst time is very high then all the jobs after that, will have to wait
in the ready queue for a very long time.
This problem is called starvation which may arise if the short term
scheduler makes some mistakes while selecting the job.
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Process Schedulers:
Medium term scheduler: Medium term scheduler takes care of
the swapped out processes. If the running state processes needs
some IO time for the completion then there is a need to change its
state from running to waiting.
Medium term scheduler is used for this purpose. It removes the
process from the running state to make room for the other
processes. Such processes are the swapped out processes and this
procedure is called swapping. The medium term scheduler is
responsible for suspending and resuming the processes.
It reduces the degree of multiprogramming. The swapping is
necessary to have a perfect mix of processes in the ready queue.
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Process Scheduling:
The process scheduling is the activity of the process manager
that handles the removal of the running process from the CPU
and the selection of another process on the basis of a particular
strategy.
Process scheduling is an essential part of a Multiprogramming
operating systems. Such operating systems allow more than
one process to be loaded into the executable memory at a time
and the loaded process shares the CPU using time multiplexing.
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Categories of Scheduling:
There are two categories of scheduling:
• Non-preemptive: Here the resource can’t be taken from a
process until the process completes execution. The switching
of resources occurs when the running process terminates
and moves to a waiting state.
• Preemptive: Here the OS allocates the resources to a
process for a fixed amount of time. During resource
allocation, the process switches from running state to ready
state or from waiting state to ready state. This switching
occurs as the CPU may give priority to other processes and
replace the process with higher priority with the running
process.
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Process scheduling algorithms:
A Process Scheduler schedules different processes to be
assigned to the CPU based on particular scheduling algorithms.
There are six popular process scheduling algorithms;
1) First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling
2) Shortest-Job-First(SJF) Scheduling
3) Priority Scheduling
4) Shortest Remaining Time
5) Round Robin(RR) Scheduling
6) Highest Response Ratio Next
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1) First come first serve (FCFS) scheduling algorithm:
This algorithm simply schedules the jobs according to their
arrival time. The job which comes first in the ready queue will
get the CPU first. The lesser the arrival time of the job, the
sooner will the job get the CPU. FCFS scheduling may cause the
problem of starvation if the burst time of the first process is the
longest among all the jobs.
Advantages of FCFS
1. Simple & Easy
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1) First come first serve (FCFS) scheduling algorithm:
Disadvantages of FCFS
1. The scheduling method is non preemptive, the process will
run to the completion.
2. Due to the non-preemptive nature of the algorithm, the
problem of starvation may occur.
3. Although it is easy to implement, but it is poor in
performance since the average waiting time is higher as
compare to other scheduling algorithms.
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1) First come first serve (FCFS) scheduling algorithm:
Process ID Arrival Time Burst Time Completion Turn Around Waiting Time
Time Time

P0 0 2 2 2 0
P1 1 6 8 7 1
P2 2 4 12 10 6
P3 3 9 21 18 9
P4 6 12 33 29 17

Turn Around Time = Completion Time - Arrival Time

Waiting Time = Turnaround time - Burst Time
Avg Waiting Time=31/5
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1) First come first serve (FCFS) scheduling algorithm:
Convoy Effect in FCFS
FCFS may suffer from the convoy effect if the burst time of the
first job is the highest among all. If the CPU gets the processes
of the higher burst time at the front end of the ready queue
then the processes of lower burst time may get blocked which
means they may never get the CPU if the job in the execution
has a very high burst time. This is called convoy effect or
starvation.
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1) First come first serve (FCFS) scheduling algorithm:
Convoy Effect in FCFS
First scenario,

Process ID Arrival Time Burst Time Completion Turn Around Waiting Time
Time Time

P1 0 40 40 40 0
P2 1 3 43 42 39
P3 1 1 44 43 42

Avg waiting Time = 81/3

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1) First come first serve (FCFS) scheduling algorithm:
FCFS with Overhead
We are assuming that all the processes are the CPU bound
processes only. We were also neglecting the context switching
time.
However if the time taken by the scheduler in context switching
is considered then the average waiting time of the system will
be increased which also affects the efficiency of the system.
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FCFS with Overhead
Process ID Arrival Time Burst Time
P1 0 3
P2 1 2
P3 2 1
P4 3 4
P5 4 5
P6 5 2

If the context switching time of the system is 1 unit then the Gantt chart of
the system will be prepared as follows.
Given δ=1 unit;

The system will take extra 1 unit of time (overhead) after the execution of
every process to schedule the next process.
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2) Shortest Job First (SJF) algorithm:
SJF scheduling algorithm, schedules the processes according to
their burst time.
In SJF scheduling, the process with the lowest burst time,
among the list of available processes in the ready queue, is
going to be scheduled next.
However, it is very difficult to predict the burst time needed for
a process hence this algorithm is very difficult to implement in
the system.
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2) Shortest Job First (SJF) algorithm:
Advantages of SJF
• Maximum throughput
• Minimum average waiting and turnaround time
Disadvantages of SJF
• May suffer with the problem of starvation
• It is not implementable because the exact Burst time for a
process can't be known in advance.
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2) Shortest Job First (SJF) algorithm:
PID Arrival Time Burst Time Completion Turn Around Waiting Time
Time Time

1 1 7 8 7 0
2 3 3 13 10 7
3 6 2 10 4 2
4 7 10 31 24 14
5 9 8 21 12 4

No Process arrives at time 0 hence; there will be an empty slot

in the Gantt chart from time 0 to 1 (the time at which the first
process arrives).

Avg Waiting Time = 27/5

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3) Priority Scheduling algorithm:
In Priority scheduling, there is a priority number assigned to
each process. In some systems, the lower the number, the
higher the priority. While, in the others, the higher the number,
the higher will be the priority. The Process with the higher
priority among the available processes is given the CPU.
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3) Priority Scheduling algorithm:
The priority number assigned to each of the process may or
may not vary. If the priority number doesn't change itself
throughout the process, it is called static priority, while if it
keeps changing itself at the regular intervals, it is called
dynamic priority.
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3) Priority Scheduling algorithm:
In the Non Preemptive Priority scheduling, The Processes are
scheduled according to the priority number assigned to them.
Once the process gets scheduled, it will run till the completion.
Generally, the lower the priority number, the higher is the
priority of the process.
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3) Priority Scheduling algorithm: (Non Preemptive)
Process ID Priority Arrival Time Burst Time
P1 2 0 3
P2 6 2 5
P3 3 1 4
P4 5 4 2
P5 7 6 9
P6 4 5 4
P7 10 7 10
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3) Priority Scheduling algorithm: (Non Preemptive)

Process Id Priority Arrival Burst Completio Turnaroun Waiting Response

Time Time n Time d Time Time Time

1 2 0 3 3 3 0 0
2 6 2 5 18 16 11 13
3 3 1 4 7 6 2 3
4 5 4 2 13 9 7 11
5 7 6 9 27 21 12 18
6 4 5 4 11 6 2 7
7 10 7 10 37 30 18 27
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3) Priority Scheduling algorithm:
In the Preemptive Priority scheduling, the job which is being
executed can be stopped at the arrival of a higher priority job.
Once all the jobs get available in the ready queue, the
algorithm will behave as non-preemptive priority scheduling,
which means the job scheduled will run till the completion and
no preemption will be done.
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3) Priority Scheduling algorithm: (Preemptive Priority)
Process Id Priority
1 2(L)
2 6
3 3
4 5
5 4
6 10(H)
7 9
Arrival Time Burst Time
0 1
1 7
2 3
3 6
4 5
5 15
15 8
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3) Priority Scheduling algorithm: (Preemptive Priority)

Process Id Priority Arrival Burst Time Completion Turn around Waiting

Time Time Time Time

1 2 0 1 1 1 0
2 6 1 7 22 21 14
3 3 2 3 5 3 0
4 5 3 6 16 13 7
5 4 4 5 10 6 1
6 10 5 15 45 40 25
7 9 6 8 30 24 16
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4) Shortest Remaining Time First :
This Algorithm is the preemptive version of SJF scheduling. In
SRTF, the execution of the process can be stopped after certain
amount of time. At the arrival of every process, the short term
scheduler schedules the process with the least remaining burst
time among the list of available processes and the running
process.
Once all the processes are available in the ready queue, No
preemption will be done and the algorithm will work as SJF
scheduling. The context of the process is saved in the Process
Control Block when the process is removed from the execution
and the next process is scheduled. This PCB is accessed on the
next execution of this process.
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4) Shortest Remaining Time First :
Process ID Arrival Burst Time Completion Turn Around Waiting Response
Time Time Time Time Time

1 0 8 20 20 12 0
2 1 4 10 9 5 1
3 2 2 4 2 0 2
4 3 1 5 2 1 4
5 4 3 13 9 6 10
6 5 2 7 2 0 5
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4) Shortest Remaining Time First :
Since, at time 0, the only available process is P1 with CPU burst time 8. This is the only available
process in the list therefore it is scheduled.
The next process arrives at time unit 1. Since the algorithm we are using is SRTF which is a
preemptive one, the current execution is stopped and the scheduler checks for the process with
the least burst time.
Till now, there are two processes available in the ready queue. The OS has executed P1 for one
unit of time till now; the remaining burst time of P1 is 7 units. The burst time of Process P2 is 4
units. Hence Process P2 is scheduled on the CPU according to the algorithm.
The next process P3 arrives at time unit 2. At this time, the execution of process P3 is stopped
and the process with the least remaining burst time is searched. Since the process P3 has 2 unit
of burst time hence it will be given priority over others.
The Next Process P4 arrives at time unit 3. At this arrival, the scheduler will stop the execution
of P4 and check which process is having least burst time among the available processes (P1, P2,
P3 and P4). P1 and P2 are having the remaining burst time 7 units and 3 units respectively.
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4) Shortest Remaining Time First :
P3 and P4 are having the remaining burst time 1 unit each. Since, both are equal
hence the scheduling will be done according to their arrival time. P3 arrives earlier
than P4 and therefore it will be scheduled again.
The Next Process P5 arrives at time unit 4. Till this time, the Process P3 has
completed its execution and it is no more in the list. The scheduler will compare the
remaining burst time of all the available processes. Since the burst time of process
P4 is 1 which is least among all hence this will be scheduled.
The Next Process P6 arrives at time unit 5, till this time, the Process P4 has
completed its execution. We have 4 available processes till now, that are P1 (7), P2
(3), P5 (3) and P6 (2). The Burst time of P6 is the least among all hence P6 is
scheduled. Since, now, all the processes are available hence the algorithm will now
work same as SJF. P6 will be executed till its completion and then the process with
the least remaining time will be scheduled.
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5) Round Robin Scheduling Algorithm:
Round Robin scheduling algorithm is one of the most popular
scheduling algorithm which can actually be implemented in
most of the operating systems. This is the preemptive version
of first come first serve scheduling. The Algorithm focuses on
Time Sharing. In this algorithm, every process gets executed in
a cyclic way. A certain time slice is defined in the system which
is called time quantum. Each process present in the ready
queue is assigned the CPU for that time quantum, if the
execution of the process is completed during that time then the
process will terminate else the process will go back to the ready
queue and waits for the next turn to complete the execution.
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5) Round Robin Scheduling Algorithm:
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5) Round Robin Scheduling Algorithm:
Advantages
1. It can be actually implementable in the system because it is not
depending on the burst time.
2. It doesn't suffer from the problem of starvation or convoy effect.
3. All the jobs get a fare allocation of CPU.
Disadvantages
4. The higher the time quantum, the higher the response time in the
system.
5. The lower the time quantum, the higher the context switching
overhead in the system.
6. Deciding a perfect time quantum is really a very difficult task in the
system.
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5) Round Robin Scheduling Algorithm:
In the following example, there are six processes named as P1,
P2, P3, P4, P5 and P6. Their arrival time and burst time are
given below in the table. The time quantum of the system is 4
units.
Process ID Arrival Time Burst Time
1 0 5
2 1 6
3 2 3
4 3 1
5 4 5
6 6 4
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5) Round Robin Scheduling Algorithm:

Process ID Arrival Time Burst Time Completion Turn Around Waiting Time
Time Time

1 0 5 17 17 12
2 1 6 23 22 16
3 2 3 11 9 6
4 3 1 12 9 8
5 4 5 24 20 15
6 6 4 21 15 11
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6) Highest Response Ratio Next (HRRN) Scheduling:
Highest Response Ratio Next (HRNN) is one of the most optimal
scheduling algorithms. This is a non-preemptive algorithm in
which, the scheduling is done on the basis of an extra
parameter called Response Ratio. A Response Ratio is
calculated for each of the available jobs and the Job with the
highest response ratio is given priority over the others.
Response Ratio is calculated by the given formula.
Response Ratio = (W+S)/S
Where,
W → Waiting Time
S → Service Time or Burst Time
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6) Highest Response Ratio Next (HRRN) Scheduling:
Process ID Arrival Time Burst Time
0 0 3
1 2 5
2 4 4
3 6 1
4 8 2

P0 is executed for 3 units, meanwhile, only one process P1

arrives at time 3.
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6) Highest Response Ratio Next (HRRN) Scheduling:
Process ID Arrival Time Burst Time
0 0 3
1 2 5
2 4 4
3 6 1
4 8 2

P1 is executed for 5 units. Meanwhile, all the processes get

available. We have to calculate the Response Ratio for all the
remaining jobs.
RR (P2) = ((8-4) +4)/4 = 2
RR (P3) = (2+1)/1 = 3
RR (P4) = (0+2)/2 = 1
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6) Highest Response Ratio Next (HRRN) Scheduling:
Process ID Arrival Time Burst Time
0 0 3
1 2 5
2 4 4
3 6 1
4 8 2

P3 is scheduled for 1 unit. The next available processes

are P2 and P4. Let's calculate their Response ratio.
RR ( P2) = (5+4)/4 = 2.25
RR (P4) = (1+2)/2 = 1.5
The response ratio of P2 is higher hence P2 will be
scheduled.
 Process Management
Atomic Transactions:
A sequence of operations that perform a single logical
function is called as Atomic Transactions
A transaction that happens completely or not at all It
contains no partial results.
 Process Management
ACID Properties:
A transaction is a very small unit of a program and it
may contain several low level tasks. A transaction in a
database system must maintain Atomicity, Consistency,
Isolation, and Durability − commonly known as ACID
properties − in order to ensure accuracy, completeness,
and data integrity.
 Process Management
ACID Properties:
• Atomicity − This property states that a transaction
must be treated as an atomic unit, that is, either all
of its operations are executed or none. There must be
no state in a database where a transaction is left
partially completed. States should be defined either
before the execution of the transaction or after the
execution/abortion/failure of the transaction.
 Process Management
ACID Properties:
• Consistency − The database must remain in a
consistent state after any transaction. No transaction
should have any adverse effect on the data residing in
the database. If the database was in a consistent
state before the execution of a transaction, it must
remain consistent after the execution of the
transaction as well.
 Process Management
ACID Properties:
• Durability − The database should be durable enough
to hold all its latest updates even if the system fails or
restarts. If a transaction updates a chunk of data in a
database and commits, then the database will hold
the modified data. If a transaction commits but the
system fails before the data could be written on to
the disk, then that data will be updated once the
system springs back into action.
 Process Management
ACID Properties:
• Isolation − In a database system where more than
one transaction are being executed simultaneously
and in parallel, the property of isolation states that all
the transactions will be carried out and executed as if
it is the only transaction in the system. No
transaction will affect the existence of any other
transaction.