Chapter 2: Outline

2.1 Protocol Layering

2.2 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
2.3 OSI Model
 Chapter 2: Objective

❑ The first section introduces the concept of protocol layering

using two scenarios.

❑ The two principles upon which the protocol layering is based,

❑ The first principle dictates that each layer needs to have two
opposite tasks.

❑ The second principle dictates that the corresponding layers

should be identical.
 Chapter 2: Objective (continued)
❑ The second section discusses the five layers of the TCP/IP
protocol suite.

❑ The third section gives a brief discussion of the OSI model.

This model was never implemented in practice, but a brief
discussion of the model and its comparison with the TCP/IP
protocol suite may be useful to better understand the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
 PROTOCOL LAYERING

• A word we hear all the time when we talk about the

Internet is protocol.

• A protocol defines the rules that both the sender and

receiver and all intermediate devices need to follow to be
able to communicate effectively.

• When communication is simple, we may need only one

simple protocol; when the communication is complex, we
need a protocol at each layer, or protocol layering.
 Scenarios
Let us develop two simple scenarios to better
understand the need for protocol layering.

In the first scenario, communication is so simple that

it can occur in only one layer.

In the second, the communication between Maria and

Ann takes place in three layers.
A single-layer protocol
 Scenario-1
■ Assume that Maria & Ann are neighbors with lot of common
ideas.
■ Communication between them is face to face and in same
language.
■ Set of rules to be followed
i) They should greet each other when they meet.

ii) They should confine their vocabulary to the level of their

friendship.
iii) When other party is speaking, first party should refrain from
speaking.

iv) Conversation should be a dialog [Both party should talk about

an issue] not a monolog.

v) They should exchange nice words when they leave.

 Scenario-2
■ Assume that Ann is offered a higher-level position in her
company but moved to another branch located in a city far
from Maria.

■ Assume that they have come up with an innovative project to

start a new business when they retire.

■ Decided to continue their conversation through postal mail.

 Scenario-2
■ They agree on encryption/Decryption technique.(Assume that
both have a common technique that makes it hard to decrypt
the letter without a key)

■ Here, Communication between them takes place in three

layers.

⮚ Assume that both have three machines (Robots)to perform

task at each layer.
A three-layer protocol
Continued…
■ Protocol Layering helps us to the divide the task into
several smaller & simpler ones.

■ A Layer can be defined as a black box with i/p’s &

o/p’s without concern about how i/p’s are changed to
o/p’s.

■ Protocol Layering allows us to separate the services

from implementation.
Continued…
■ A Layer should be able to receive set of services from
lower layers and give services to the above layers.
■ In the Internet, communication does not only use two
end systems, intermediate systems also which need
only some layers.

■ If Protocol Layering is not used, then each

intermediate systems will be as complex as end
systems and makes the whole system very expensive.

Is single Layer not enough to make job easier.???

 Principles of Protocol Layering

Let us discuss two principles of protocol layering.

• The first principle dictates that if we want

bidirectional communication, we need to make each
layer so that it is able to perform two opposite tasks,
one in each direction.

• The second principle that we need to follow in

protocol layering is that the two objects under each
layer at both sites should be identical.
 Logical Connections
• After following the above two principles, we can
think about logical connection between each layer as
shown in Figure, i.e we have layer-to-layer
communication.

• Maria and Ann can think that there is a logical

connection at each layer through which they can send
the object created from that layer.

• Discuss the concept of logical connection will help

us better understand the task of layering.
Logical connection between peer layers
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

● TCP/IP is a protocol suite(Set of protocols organized in

different layers)used in the Internet today.

● It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive

modules, each provides specific functionality.

● Hierarchical means that each upper layer protocol is

supported by the services provided by the lower layers
protocols.

● TCP/IP is a five layer model.

 Layered Architecture

•To show how the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite

are involved in communication between two hosts,

⮚ Assume that protocol suite is used in a small

internet made up of three LANs (links), each with a
link-layer switch.

⮚ Assume that the links are connected by one router,

as shown in Figure below.
Layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite
Communication through an internet
 Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
⮚Discuss the functions and duties of layers in the
TCP/IP protocol suite.

⮚ To better understand the duties of each layer, we

need to think about the logical connections
between layers in the simple Internet.

⮚Duties of AL,TL & NL is end-to-end.

⮚Duties of DLL and PL is hop-to-hop.
Logical connections between layers in TCP/IP

Logical connections
Identical objects in the TCP/IP protocol suite

Identical objects (messages)

Identical objects (segment or user datagram)

Identical objects (datagram) Identical objects (datagram)

Identical objects (frame) Identical objects (frame)

Identical objects (bits) Identical objects (bits)

Description of Each Layer:
1. Physical Layer
■ Responsible for
1. Physical characteristics of interface and medium.

Transmitting individual bits from one device to the

transmission medium.

2. Representation of bits.

Data consists of a stream of bits(0s,1s) with no

interpretation. Bits must be encoded into signals-
Electrical or optical.
1. Physical Layer
3. Data rate

Defines number of bits sent in each second.

4. Synchronization of bits

Sender and receiver must use same bit rate i.e sender
and receiver clocks must be synchronized
5. Line configuration
Concerned with connection of device to a medium
● Point-to-point 🡪 Two devices are connected with dedicated
link.
● Multi point🡪Link is shared among multiple devices.
1. Physical Layer

6. Physical topology

Defines how devices are connected to make network.

Defines various topologies used in the underlying

network.

7. Transmission mode

Defines direction of transmission between

devices (Simplex, half duplex or Full duplex)
2. Data Link Layer
⮚ As Internet is made up of several links connected by
routers, routers are responsible for choosing best
links and DLL is responsible for

1. Taking data grams and moving it across the link.

The link can be wired LAN or wireless LAN

2. Framing
Divides stream of bits received from NL into
manageable data units called frames.
Continued
3. Physical addressing
Attaches the address of device that connects the network
to next.

4. Flow control
Imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming
the receiver.
5. Error Control(ED & EC)
Adds reliability mechanism to detect and retransmit
damaged or lost frames, recognize duplicate frames.
6. Access Control
Determine which device has complete control over the
link at any given time
3. Network Layer
■ Responsible for creating connection between the
source and destination computer.

■ Source to destination delivery of packet across

same/multiple networks.
if two nodes are connected to same N/W, there is no
need for N/W Layer. If, attached to different N/W,
N/W Layer is required to accomplish source
destination delivery of info.

■ Main duty is to provide internetworking, the logical

gluing of heterogeneous N/Ws together to look like
a single N/W to upper layers.
Functions
1. Logical addressing

Attaches logical address of sender and receiver.

2. Routing

Uses Connecting devices(Switches/Routers) to

switch packet to final destination for choosing best
route for each packet.
Network layer

Why Network Layer is required?

Can this routing feature can’t be added to TL only?

i) Separation of tasks between different layers.

ii) Routers do not need AL and TL.

Continued..
■ The Network Layer in the Internet includes the
main protocol IP, that defines format of the
packet called a Datagram.

■ IP also defines format & structure of the

addresses used in this Layer.

■ IP is responsible for routing packet from source

to its destination, which is achieved by each
router forwarding the datagram to the next router
in its path.
Continued..
■ IP Is the transmission mechanism used by TCP/IP

■ Unreliable and connectionless protocol

■ Provides Best-Effort Service

■ Best effort means that IP provides no error checking, does its

best to transmits to its destination without any guarantee.

■ If any of these services are required by an application, it

should rely on TL protocols.
Continued..
■ Network layer also includes Unicast and multicast
routing protocols.

■ Routing protocols are mainly responsible for

forwarding the datagram to the next router in its
path.
■ Those protocols does not take part in routing.

■ N/W Layer also includes auxiliary protocols that help

IP in its delivery and routing tasks.
Eg: ICMP, IGMP,DHCP, ARP,RARP
4. Transport Layer
Responsible for
■ End-to-End logical connection.
■ TL at source hosts gets msg from AL, encapsulates it in TL
packet(segment or User Datagram in diff protocol) and sends
it through logical connection to TL at the destination host.
■ TL gives services to AL.
Transport Layer (Cond..)
■ TL has more than one protocol and each AL program can
use the protocols that matches his requirements.

■ TL has two main protocols:- TCP & UDP

■ TCP is connection oriented protocol that first establishes

connection between the TL at two hosts before
transferring data.

■ TCP provides Flow Control, Error Congestion and

Congestion control.
Continued..
■ Second protocol is UDP, is connectionless protocol, that
transmits the datagrams without creating logical
connection.

■ In datagram is an independent entity.

■ UDP does not provide FC,EC and CC.

■ Third Protocol is SCTP(Stream control Transmission

Protocol) –is built to respond to emerging multimedia
applications.
5. Application Layer
■ Communication at AL is between two processes.

■ To communicate, a process sends a request to other

process and receives the response.

■ Many predefined protocols are included.

■ User can create a pair of processes to be run at the

two hosts.
Eg: HTTP, SMTP, FTP, TELNET, SSH, SNMP, DNS,
IGMP
 Encapsulation and Decapsulation

•One of the important concepts in protocol layering in

the Internet is encapsulation/ decapsulation.

• Figure below shows this concept for the small

internet.
Encapsulation / Decapsulation
 Addressing
• Another concept related to protocol layering in the
Internet, addressing.

• Discuss the logical communication between pairs

of layers in this model.
 Addressing
● Any communication that involves two parties needs
two addresses: source address and destination
address.

● Although it looks as if we need five pairs of

addresses, one pair per layer, normally have only
four because the physical layer does not need
addresses;

● The unit of data exchange at the physical layer is a

bit, which definitely cannot have an address.
Addressing in the TCP/IP protocol suite
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• TCP/IP protocol suite uses several protocols at some
layers.

⮚ we can say multiplexing at the source and

demultiplexing at the destination.

⮚ Multiplexing in this case means that a protocol at a

layer can encapsulate a packet from several next-
higher layer protocols (one at a time);
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

⮚Demultiplexing means that a protocol can decapsulate

and deliver a packet to several next-higher layer
protocols (one at a time).

⮚ Figure below shows the concept of multiplexing and

demultiplexing at the three upper layers.
Multiplexing and demultiplexing
 OSI MODEL

• A protocol defines the rules that both the sender and

receiver and all intermediate devices need to follow to
be able to communicate effectively.

• When communication is simple, we may need only

one simple protocol;

• When the communication is complex, we need a

protocol at each layer, or protocol layering.
 The OSI model
■ An ISO(International organizations for standardization) that
covers all aspects of network communication is OSI(Open
system Interconnection) model introduced in late 1970’s

■ Open Systems is a set of protocols that allow any two

different systems to communicate regardless of their
underlying architecture.

■ Purpose of OSI model is to show how to facilitate

communication between different systems without
requiring changes to the logic of underlying
hardware and software.
 The OSI model
■ It is not a protocol.

■ It is model for understanding and designing

network architecture that is flexible, robust and
interoperable Is a layered framework for
design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer
systems.
 The OSI model

■ Consists of 7 separate but related layers.

■ Each layer defines a part of process of moving

information across a network
The OSI model
 OSI versus TCP/IP
• When we compare the two models, we find that two
layers, session and presentation, are missing from the
TCP/IP protocol suite.

• These two layers were not added to the TCP/IP

protocol suite after the publication of the OSI model.

• The application layer in the suite is usually

considered to be the combination of three layers in the
OSI model.
TCP/IP and OSI model
 Lack of OSI Model’s Success
• The OSI model appeared after the TCP/IP protocol
suite.

• Most experts were at first excited and thought that the

TCP/IP protocol would be fully replaced by the OSI
model.
 Lack of OSI Model’s Success

•This did not happen for several reasons

1. OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place.

2. Some Layers in OSI was never fully defined.

(Presentation Layer & Session Layer)

3. OSI was implemented by an organization in a

different application (Performance level was low
compared to TCP/IP).