UNIT FOUR

AFRICA RESISTANCE TO
COLONIALISM AND THE STRUGGLE
AGAINST COLONIAL RULE

The First World War and the Russian Revolution

(1877s-1939)
 4.1 The Africans Peoples’ Resistance
Against Colonial Expansion from the
1870s to 1914
From the very beginning of European conquest, there
had been struggle against colonialism which took
place in d/t parts of Africa through d/t methods &
tactics.
The Mahdists, the Maji Maji Rebellion, the Samori
Toure & the Urabi Pasha Mov'ts were the best
examples of Africa resistance or struggle against
colonial powers.
 Samori Toure of the Mandinka
Samori Toure was one of those leaders in West Africa.
He attempted to build a big empire in West Africa in
the 1870’s.
His empire included the present day Eastern Senegal,
South Eastern Mali & Guinea.
He had admirable military skills & leadership qualities
which earned him praise “The Napoleon of West
Africa”.
He resisted the French expansion in west Africa. In the
course of his struggle, he had made peaceful
agreements with France in 1886 & 1887.
However, it did not last long &the two groups
confronted one another.
Cont.
During the early years of his struggle (1891-1894),
Toure got fire arms from the colonial traders.
He had also gained British support, which they did to
satisfy their own interests.
At the end, the French army succeeded in defeating as
well as in capturing Samori Toure in 1898. Then they
exiled him to Gabon (French Colony) were he died two
years later at the age of 70.
The causes for the defeat of Samori Toure
Lack of modern firearms.
Lack of unity among Africans.
Internal revolts.
 The Ashanti Empire
The Ashanti Empire or Asante Empire, also known as
the Ashanti Confederacy or Asantehene (independent
from 1701-1896), was a pre-colonial west Africa state
created by the Akan people of what is now Ashanti
Region in Ghana.
The empire was governed by kings, who used the title
Asantehene. On the other side, the British began their
colonial venture by annexing a coastal strip of land in
what has later became Ghana.
In 1874 they called in the British Gold Coast colony.
The Ashanti invaded the new British protectorate. On
the course of the conflict, the capital of Ashanti was
briefly occupied & the British burned it.
Cont.
Finally, the Asantehene (the King of the Ashanti) signed
a harsh British Treaty in July 1874 to end of the war &
start the gradual destruction of the Asante Unoin.
In 1891, the Ashanti turned down as unofficial offer to
become a British protectorate. Wanting to keep French
colonial forces out of Ashanti territory, the British were
anxious to conquer Asante man ones & for all.
The British made the first military in 1896 & occupied
the Ashanti Empire.
The second campaign was fought in 1900.
The British were victorious & Asante man was forced to
sign a treaty of protection.
The British formally declared the coastal regions to be
the Gold Coast Colony.
Cont.
Finally, the Ashanti had bravely fought against the
British & paid immense sacrifices in the 1900 uprising.
However, they were not able to fend off British
Colonialism.
The Urabi Pasha’s Rebellion in Egypt
After the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, European
powers were highly interested in Egypt & became its
greatest creditors.
In the case of Britain, Egypt became strategically
important territory as a gateway to India. That is why
Britain wanted to control Egypt.
Before Egypt was controlled by Britain in 1882, France
& Britain had established a dual control over Egyptian
finance.
Cont.
Before the Egypt controlled by Britain in 1882, France &
Britain had established a dual control over Egyptian finance.
Their domination over Egyptian administration resulted in a
nationalist uprising against them under the leadership of
Colonel Urabi Pasha in 1881.
The nationalists’ target was not only Britain & France, but
also the Egyptian puppet rulers.
The Egyptian uprising or revolt was crushed finally after a
bloody battle at Tel El-Kabir that led to the defeat as well as
the occupation of Egypt by Britain in 1882.
When Egypt was occupied by the British, the French felt
cheated. It became part of the causes of bitter British-French
colonial rivalries in Africa.
On the other side, after controlling Egypt, the British
moved to the Sudan.
 The Mahdist Movement in the Sudan
The Mahdist Movement had started a war of national
liberation against Egyptian rule in 1881.
The Mahdi in the Sudan began a religious revivalist & anti-
colonial resistance mov’t against Egypt in 1881.
The person that came to be known as Mahdi was
Mohammed Ahmed Ibn Abdallah.
Sudan was administrated by Egypt since the 1820s. However,
the Mahdists under Mohammed Ahmed Ibn Abdallah
defeated General Gordon (the British Colonial Governor in
the Sudan). Gordon was killed & beheaded by the Mahdists.
In addition, some of the Egyptian army in the East was
subsequently trapped. That is why Rear Admiral Hewett
signed the Hewett Treaty of 1884 with Emperor Yohannis IV
for the safe evacuation of Egyptian army.
Cont.
Sudan achieved its independence under the Mahdists
(1881-1889)
But the joint Egyptian & British forces under the command
of General Kitchner invaded Sudan in 1898.
At the end, the Anglo-Egyptian army crushed the Mahdist
resistance which was led by Khalifa Abdullahi (the
successor of the Mahdi) at the battle of Omdurman in 1898.
Following this, the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium rule was
set up in the Sudan.
But the real masters of Sudan were the British.
The Maji Maji Rebellion
In 1885, the Sultan of Zanzibar leased the coast to the
German-East Africa company for 50 years.
One of the early resistance to the Germans in Zanzibar was
led by Bushiri Ibn Salim (an Arab sugar planter).
Cont.
The German tried to overcome this problems recruited
mercenaries from Egypt.
The resistance was crushed & the leader Bushiri was
killed in battle in 1889.
In February 1885, Germany declared a protector over
Tanganyika mainland. But wide spread revolt, soon broke
out in 1905.
The Maji Maji revolt broke out as reaction to the passive
colonial policy of the Germans.
The rebellion began when the local people resisted the
attempt of colonial gov’t to force them in to growing
cotton for export.
This broad based peasant rebellion later come to be
referred to as the Maji Maji revolt. The term Maji means
water, in the Swahili language.
Cont.
Leaders of the mov't gave the revolt a religious
dimension.
They claimed that German bullets could be made
ineffective when the warriors sprinkle their bodies with
Majic water, people believed them.
The Maji Maji revolt continued to 1907.
This mass resistance was brutally suppressed & the
Germans continued with their harsh colonial rule.
4.2 The First World War (1914-1918)
Causes of the First World War
1. The Rivalry among Imperialist Powers
Industrial revolution was one of the main causes of
WWI.
Cont.
As industry spread up in western Europe, the need for
raw materials forced Europeans to look for colonies in
backward regions of the world.
The competition for colonies resulted in the rivalry of
colonial powers in d/t parts of the world.
2. Nationalism
It created tension b/n France & Germany. France
wanted to avenge its defeated at the battle of Sedan in
1870-1871 & to regain her provinces Alsace & Lorraine.
The Balkan nationalism was also another sources of
tension. They struggled to be independent from the
Ottoman Turks domination.
3. Crisis preceding the war
A. The Moroccan crisis of 1905 & 1911
 In 1904 Britain & France concluded an anti Germany
cordiale in which France got a free hand in Morocco &
England of free in Egypt & the Sudan.
 Germany challenged the French claims over Morocco.
 Finally, resolved when France allowed Germany to
control some parts of the Congo. Then France was
given hand in Morocco.
 France then established a protectorate over part of
Morocco in 1912.
B. The Balkan Crisis
 The Bosnian Crisis:- Bosnia Herzegovina had part of
the Ottoman Empire.
Cont.
But it was seized in 1878 & annexed in 1908 by Austro –
Hungarian Empire.
Serbia, who claimed the territory opposed the action
bitterly.
Enemity cropped up b/n Serbia & Austro-Hungary.
Following this, the subject nations in the Balkan rose up
against the religious & national oppression imposed by the
Ottoman Turks & this led to the Balkan war of 1912 & 1913.
The out come of the war was that Turkey was ousted
almost from the Balkan Peninsula.
4. Military Alliances
The formation of alliances was another development that
added tension on the eve of the First World War.
Cont.
Triple Alliance:- In 1879, the Dual Alliance was formed b/n
Germany & Austro-Hungary. Italy annoyed by France‘s
occupation of Tunisia, joined the Dual Alliance in 1882 & the
Triple Alliance was formed.
Later named Central Power, which included Germany, Italy,
Austro-Hungary & Ottoman Turkey in 1914.
 Bulgaria joined the Central Power in 1915.
Italy, however, left it & joined the Triple Entente in 1915.
Triple Entente:- First Britain & France formed the entente
cordiale in 1914.
It was transformed in to Triple Entente when Russia joined
the alliance in 1907.
More than 20 countries, including the USA, Japan, the
Union of South Africa, Portugal & Rumania joined the Triple
entente, renamed the Allied Powers in the course of WWI.
Cont.
5. Owing to the mutual suspicion
European powers were engaged in arms race.
Germany had increasingly built her industrial & military
power since 1871.
B/n 1898 & 1914, Germany built a naval power that was able
to challenge British naval supremacy.
Mutual suspicion & fear of one another reigned among the
nations of Europe.
Immediate Cause of WWI
The assassination of Francis (Franz) Ferdinand at
Sarajevo (Bosnia) was the immediate cause of the First
World War.
The Austro-Hungarian Crown Prince (Archduke)
Francis Ferdinand was assassinated by Gavrilo
Princip, a Serb nationalist on June 28, 1914.
Cont.
It was a direct challenge to the Austro-Hungarian Empire
which reached by sending an ultimatum to Serbia,
demanding that, Serbia stop anti-Austrian propaganda &
allow Austria to investigate the plot in Serbian that led to
the assassination of Francis Ferdinand.
The Course of WWI
Russia, in support of Serbia, started mobilization for war
from July 31,1914.
Germany, Austria’s ally, declared war on Russia & then on
France in August 1 & 3, 1914 respectively.
When Germany invaded neutral Belgium, Britain
declared war on Germany to help defend France.
On August 6, 1914 Austria-Hungary declared on Russia.
This chain of events finally dragged members of both
military camps in war.
Cont.
The WWI was fought in d/t fronts.
The western front was the most decisive of all fronts.
Germany followed the Schlieffen plan, designed by
German war General Alfred Von Schiliffen in 1906.
It was planned to attack France through Belgium &
occupy Paris with in 6 weeks in a “Swinging Door”
operation.
Then to turn to east against the Russian. According to
the plan Germans advanced across Belgium in to
France.
Contrary to German expectation the Russian made
rapid mobilization & attacked Germans.
The Germany was forced to transfer part of their army
to Russia (Eastern Front)
Cont.
On the western front, struggle b/n France, Britain, & Belgium
against Germany.
When opposing armies came to a dead lock (stalemate), they
dug trenches that run from the English channel to Switzerland.
The space b/n opposing trenches came to be known as ‘No
man‘s land’ when they fought a battle of attrition using new
weapons such as poison gas, tank & airplane.
In May 1915, Italy joined WWI n the side of Allied Power.
The military balance was changed when the USA, entered the
war, when Germany‘s attack on commercial ships bound to
England in the Pacific on May 7, 1915, the German submarine
(under water boat) sank a commercial ship & caused the death
of large number of people including many American citizens.
Cont.
In January 1917, Germany started an all out of campaign, of
sinking ships trading with the Allied (Entente) power.
The USA declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917.
In 1918, Allied Forces were reinforced by fresh American
troops, & they started an offensive against Germany & drove
them from France.
By late 1918, Germany high commander forced for peace &
on November 11, 1918 German ended hostility by accepting
armistice.
The Consequences of the First World War
Social:-
About 10 million soldiers lost their lives & over 20 million
wounded.
Millions of civilians died as a result of hostilities, famine &
disease & families were dislocated.
Cont.
Economic:-
The total cost of the war is estimated over $ 300
billion.
Destruction of industrial plants, bridges & other
infrastructure were destructed.
Political:-
The USA & Soviet Union become the leading world
powers.
Three major European dynasties were dethroned:- the
Hohenzollerns of Germany, the Hapsburgs of Austria-
Hungary & the Romanous of Russia.
New national states arose in central Europe.
The Ottoman Turkish Empire disintegrated & Turkey
become state.
Cont.
Arab territories were become independent laters.
The League of Nations was established to solve
international problems & advanced world peace.
Series of peace agreements were concluded at the end of the
war.
The Versailles Treaty signed on June 28, 1919 with Germany.
The peace treaty declared that Germany alone was
responsible for causing the war. As a result, she was
required to pay reparations, which was calculated 6,600
million.
She was forbidden to have any submarines or war planes &
only a small army of 100,000 men.
Germany was forbidden to station any soldiers in the
Rhineland, i.e., the demilitarized zone for 15 years.
Cont.
The American President Woodrow Wilson had forwarded his “14
points”, to serve as a guide line at the peace settlement.
One of his proposed point, was the right of self-determination for
nations.
The victors of WWI divided German colonies among themselves.
They were to be given the status of a mandate.
German East Africa to Britain; Rwanda & Burundi to Belgium;
South-West Africa to the Union of South Africa. Cameroons &
Togoland were divided b/n Britain & France. Samoan Islands to New
Zealand; New Guinea to Australia; Marshal Islands to New Zealand;
Marshal Islands & Pacific Islands north of the Equator to Japan. The
mandatory powers were entrusted to prepare these colonies for self-
government & independence.
The unfair Treaty of Brest-Litovsk which Germany signed with
Russia in 1918, was cancelled & the Germans were obliged to
withdrew from Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia & other occupied
territories.
 4.3 The Russian Revolution
Causes of the Revolution
Causes of the revolution were peasants had no lands,
workers had to lead their lives under difficult working
condition.
Various sectors of the society discontented through
out 19th c by the autocratic rules of Czars.
These led to the rise of political groups in secret.
The Liberal groups demand the replacement of Czarist
absolutism by Democratic parliamentary government.
Social Revolutionaries thought that peasant, should
rise up & seize the lands.
The most radical group groups were the Marxist
followed the teaching of Karl Marx (1818-1883).
Cont.
They founded the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party
(RSDLP) in 1848.
Later this party divided in to Bolsheviks & Mensheviks.
The Bolsheviks (majority) were led by Lenin, whose real
name was Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov have a party with small
members of selected & dedicated members only.
The Mensheviks (minority) want to include all who support
of Marxist idea.
The 1905 Revolution
It was partly b/c the gov’t was incompetent, it had led
Russia to be defeated in the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-
1905.
The revolution was actually sparked off the killings of
hundreds of peaceful demonstrators in St. Petersburg. This
was called “Bloody Sunday”.(on Sunday 21 Jan.1905)
Cont.
The revolution was a violent uprising of people to force a
change of gov’t. But, the revolution of 1905 did not bring
many changes to Russia.
The Czar had to agree to hold elections for a Duma
(Parliament), but it was never allowed to have any real
power.
Using his troops, Nicolas put down all opposition &
restricted the power of the Duma. As a result, absolutism
continued until another revolution challenged it ones again.
By 1916, Nicholas & his wife Alexandra (the czarina) were
becoming very unpopular.
The Czarina was especially unpopular b/c she was a
foreigner, a German. At this time a strange holy-man named
Rasputin also had great influenced over czarina. This was
another reason for her unpopularity.
Cont.
Rasputin had a very bad reputation & tried to become
more powerful through her. He even arranged for the
dismissal of many ministers & the appointment of
quite incompetent ones.
Generally, the state had been run by incompetent
ministers, which showed that how corrupt the regime
had become.
Lenin immediately set about plans to take over control
of the gov’t. An attempt in July was unsuccessful & he
had to escape to Finland for fear of being arrested.
The Bolsheviks of the Petrograd Soviets led a popular
insurrection beginning from 25 Oct. 191. with in 10
days the headquarters of the provisional gov’t fell
under the control of the Bolsheviks.
The Road to the 1917 Revolution
The March Revolution
By the end of 1916 & early 1917, the discontent in Russia
become very serious. Politicians in the Duma demanded
the Czar should introduce reforms. They wanted a new
form of gov‘t.
The working people of Petrograd went on strike & rioted,
protesting especially about the price & scarcity of food.
The Czar was completely incapable of dealing with these
serious problems. In March 1917, discontented soldiers
joined the rioters.
The gov’t had lost control. 12 members of the Duma
decided that they should take over. They forced the Czar
to abdicate. Then the Romanov Dynasy came to an end.
The Provisional Government
Members of the Duma organized themselves in to a
Provisional Gov’t. Kerensky was the Prime Minister.
However, they discovered that governing Russia was very
difficult the following reasons.
1. The First World War was still going very badly & many
soldiers were deserting.
2. Prices were still rising & food was becoming very
scarce in the towns.
3. The peasants were becoming so discontented that they
started to take over the land from the land lords.
4. In Petrograd a council of workers, peasants & soldiers
was formed as an alternative gov’t. this was known as
Petrograd Soviets. ‘Soviets’ is the Russian word of
Council.
Cont.
The Bolsheviks under, Lenin, who had just returned from
exile (Switzerland), demanded that the ineffective Provisional
Gov’t should be dissolved.
The Bolsheviks (majority) held popular slogans of the day “All
power to the Soviet” & “Peace, Land & Bread”. With these
slogans & their organizing skills, the Bolsheviks, won popular
support.
The Bolsheviks
By the autumn, however, the Bolsheviks were very much more
powerful due to that:-
A. Their promises of reforms made them popular.
B. Another great leader of the Bolsheviks, Leo Trotsky, was
Chairman of the Petrograd Soviet.
C. Thousands of workers had been given weapons to form ‘Red
Guards’. The Provisional Gov’t could not rely on the loyalty
of the army.
The October 1917 Revolution
1. Organized the workers to take over factories &
nationalized industries. Eight hour working day was
introduced.
2. Directed the peasant to seize the noble’s estate by
the decree passed in Oct. 1917. it confiscated the land
of land lords & gave it to the peasants.
3. The Decree on peace relieved the soldiers from the
war that they were not willing to fight.
 Russia finally, withdrew from WWI, after signing the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in 1918.
 Generally, by introducing these & other measures,
the Bolsheviks tried to meet the demands of the
people for “Peace, Land & Bread”.
Cont.
Stalin introduced series of economic plans called Five Years
Economic Plans.
Through these economic plans he had already transformed
Russia from backward agricultural nation in to a modern
industrial state.
The economic strength enabled Russia to be successful &
victorious in WWII.
CIVIL WAR
Many people disliked or were afraid of Bolsheviks. These
includes:-
A. The supporters of the Czar who wanted the return of the royal
government.
B. Other politicians who wanted at least a share in the them.
C. The Allies , in the first world war, were still being fought in the
west. The Allies thought that any other gov’t in Russia would
continue the war.
Cont.
The Allies were also frightened that, at Lenin forecasts,
communist revolutions would break out in other
countries.
Civil war, therefore, broke out in Russia & lasted until
1920.
The Red Army (Communist) was commanded by Trotsky.
The Anti-Communists, White armies had no central
command & were therefore very inefficient. The Red
Army eventually won.
However, during the war the Russian people suffered in
the most horrible ways.
On the other side, in order to keep the communists in
control of the country & to cope with all these huge
problems, Lenin made three major changes:-
Cont.
1. He set up the New Economic Policy. This allowed
working people like peasants to make profit by selling
goods they produced.
2. He turned the country in to the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republic (USSR). The Theory was that each of
the provinces of this huge country would be semi-
independent.
3. He set up a system of gov’t as harsh as the Czar’s. A
secret police force was organized, called the Cheka.
 Lenin died in 1924. Following this, the competition b/n
Trotsky & Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the
Communist Party, came in to being.
 But, finally, Stalin won b/c he controlled the party
officials throughout the country. Trotsky was expelled
from Russia in 1929.
4.4 Anti-Colonial Struggle in Africa B/n the
Two World Wars
The African struggle for independence developed after
WWI.
The Africans used new form of struggle against
colonialism
The self help or welfare associations & the political parties
played a great role in this phase of Africans struggle.
The welfare associations demanded the restoration of the
expropriated lands to the natives.
The political parties mobilized Africans for national
independence.
Generally, the anti-colonial struggle b/n the two world
wars paved the way for the independence of African
countries after 1945.
The young kikuyu Association in Kenya
It was a native association organized by African workers in
urban areas & white farmlands.
The British chose the Kenyan highlands for white settlement.
The land formerly belonged to the Kikuyu had been given to
the whites. The Kikuyu became hostile to British colonialism
& white settlers.
The association was organized by Harry Thuku in 1921 to
protect African rights against the British Colonial rule &
demanded the return of African land that had been taken
away for the white settlements.
The Kikuyu are one of the largest communities of Kenya. The
British reacted violently & took repressive measures.
Finally, they imprisoned the organizer of the Association,
Harry Thuku in 1922.
The Bataka Association in Uganda
It was formed by the young & educated Ugandans to
oppose the participation of the Kabaka (king of
Buganda) & the chiefs in the Lukiko, i.e, British colonial
assembly.
In 1900 there was an agreement b/n the British &
Uganda chiefs, Kabaka. As per the agreement, the chiefs
were allowed to represent the people in the Lukiko.
The Bataka Association founders were against being
represented by the Kabaka & the Chiefs in the Lukiko.
The name Bataka came from the title of clan heads that
had ruled the people of Buganda in the ancient times.
Te association was the party of the common people
which became stronger after the Second World War.
 The Emergence of Political Parties & the
Struggle Against Colonial Rule
The ANC (African National Congress)
The organization known as ANC was formed in 1912.
It has been the ruling party of post-Apartheid South Africa on
national level since 1994.
It greatly influenced those workers from other parts of Africa
who went to South Africa as migrant labourers. When they
returned to their countries, they took ideas of organized
struggle for both democratic rights & independence from
colonial rule.
Those workers came from Basutoland (Lesotho) & Swaziland.
In 1949 the youth League (Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu,
Oliver Tambo), idea were based on African nationalism &
utilized this idea to involve masses in to military struggles.
Cont.
In other parts of Africa, political parties were formed to
end colonial rule
As early as 1918, a Gold Coast lawyer. J.E Casely Hayford
founded National Congress of British West Africa
which spread to Nigeria in 1920.
Following WWI Egypt waged a strong anti-colonial
opposition against British. This was the background of
the emergence of Egyptian nationalist party called
Wafd in 1919 led by Saad Zaghlul Pasha.
In Tunisia the Neo-Datsur Party was formed with major
goal of winning the independence of Tunisia from
French colonialism. It was founded in 1934 under the
leadership of Habib Bourgiba, who later become the
first president of independent Tunisia in 1956.
Cont.
One exceptional case was the struggle of the Riff
communities of Morocco against French & Spanish
colonial rule under the leadership of Abd el-Kerim, in
the 1920s he abled to form independent republic but
destroyed with combined military might of France &
Spain.