Course Code: PS1102

Course Name: STATISTICAL METHODS

FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
• Statistics and Psychology- Psychological Research, Relevance of Statistics in Psychological
Research; Descriptive and Inferential Statistics, Scales of Measurement.
• Normal Probability: Concept and principles, characteristics of NPC, divergence from
normality, applications of normal distribution curve;
• Descriptive Statistics: Graphical representation of data, measures of central tendency and
variability; Percentiles, percentile ranks;
• Inferential Statistics: Standard error of mean and other statistics, significance of difference
between means (t test), One-way ANOVA;
• Non-Parametric Statistics- Difference between parametric and non-parametric statistics; chi
Square tests and median test.
• Correlation: Concept and meaning of correlation, Pearson’s product-moment correlation,
rank-order correlation
 Reference Book:

1.H.E. Garret, R.S Woodworth, Statistics in psychology and education. Bombay:

Vakils Feffer& Simons Ltd(2005).
2. B. Mohanty, S. Misra, Statistics for behavioral and social sciences. New Delhi:
Sage Publications India (2016).
3. V .Veeraraghavan, S. Shetgovekar Textbook of parametric and non-parametric
statistics. New Delhi: Sage Publications India (2016).
4. A.E.N. Aron, A.E. Coups, Statistics for psychology, (6thed.). New Delhi: Pearson
Education (2006).
5. S.K. Mangal, Statistics in psychology and education, New Delhi: PHI (2012).
6. E.W. Minium, B.M. King, G. Bear, Statistical reasoning in psychology and
education. New York: John Wiley (1993).
 Assessment Rubrics
Criteria Description Maximum Marks
  Sessional Exam I 20
Internal Assessment Sessional Exam II 20
(Summative)
In class Quizzes and Assignments , Activity 20
feedbacks (Accumulated and Averaged)

End Term Exam End Term Exam 40

(Summative)

  Total 100

Attendance A minimum of 75% Attendance is required to be maintained by a student to be qualified for

taking up the End Semester examination. The allowance of 25% includes all types of leaves
(Formative)
including medical leaves.
 Meaning of Research
 Research is made of two words i.e.,Re+ Search.
 Re stands for again and again while search means to find something. So, in a
simple words Research means to search something.
 None of research is complete, as every research is having some flaws.
 In other words, a systematic process of collecting and analyzing data to find an
answer to a question or a solution to a problem, to validate or test an existing
theory.
 Theory: a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions
that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among
variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena.
 Definition of Research
According to Kerlinger, “Scientific research is systematic, controlled,
empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about
the presumed relations among natural phenomena.”
Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain
new knowledge.”
Burn (1994, p. 2) views research as “a systematic investigation to find
answers to a problem”. Some people consider research as a
movement from the known to unknown.
• Research is an art of scientific and systematic investigation to get
information about a specific topic. It can be considered as an effort to
find an answer of intellectual and practical problems using the
applicable scientific method.
• It is actually a voyage to discover something new. It has a certain
prescribed ideas to perform the activities. It is the pursuit of the truth
with the help of study, observation, comparison, and experiment
 Process of Scientific Method in Research

The term scientific method denotes the principles that guide scientific
research and experimentation, and the philosophical bases of those
principles.
The scientific method of inquiry is characterized by the following
convictions:
that the process must be objective to reduce bias in methods and
interpretation of results.
that the process should be systematic in that it ought to involve certain
standard procedures.
enquiry should be conducted through a process of systematic
observation that can be verified by experience (empiricism).
There should be careful recording, documenting, archival and sharing
of all data and methodology (full disclosure) to make it available for
scrutiny by other researchers, thereby allowing them to verify results
by attempting to reproduce them.
 Characteristics of the Scientific Method
 It involves gathering new data or using existing data for a new purpose. It is not merely
reproducing information such as would be produced by a student when asked to ‘research’ on a
topic and write a paper.
 It is directed towards the solution of a problem. The ‘problem’ is the focus of the whole research
process in that the entire design aims at how the problem can be solved or how the research
question(s) can be answered.
 It relies on empirical evidence, i.e. on events or data that can be verified by observation.
 This distinguishes formal research from informal research whose findings and conclusions are
based on popular belief, dogma, hearsay, hunches, guess work and other subjective methods that
people resort to when seeking answers to questions.
 It is systematic in procedures of planning, collection of data, analysis and reporting.
 It follows clearly stipulated procedures. All these must be carefully recorded and described.
 Research ethics require that terms are defined, limiting factors stated, procedures described,
references given and results reported faithfully. The report should also be availed for scrutiny by
other interested researchers.
 It aims at generalizing findings to larger groups by discovering general principles that will be
helpful in predicting future occurrences.
 This calls for careful sampling procedures to ensure that the sample is representative of the larger
group.
 It requires careful and accurate observation and description.
 It is logical and objective; every possible step is taken to ensure validity of procedure, tools and
conclusions. The researcher strives to eliminate personal feelings and bias.
 These could be intended or unintended. The emphasis is on testing rather than proving the
hypothesis.
• Kothari and Garg (2014) defines research‘ refers to the systematic
method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and
reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solution (s) towards
the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some
theoretical formulation.
 Objectives of research
To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
(studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative
research studies).
To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation
or a group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive
research studies).
To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known
as diagnostic research studies).
To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies
are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
 Type of Research
• Descriptive research describes the state of affairs as it exists at present.
It includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The
researcher only reports what has happened or what is happening but he
has no control over the variables. On the other hand in analytical
research, the researcher has to use facts or information which are
already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of
the material.
• Applied research is conducted in response to a specific problem,
which requires a solution. The major purpose of applied research is to
answer practical and useful question about policies, programs,
projects, procedures, or organizations (Pant, 2009. p.6). The basic
purpose of applied research is to find a solution for an immediate
problem facing by existing structure. It is concerned with knowledge
that has immediate applications.
• Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the
formulation of a theory. It is undertaken for the sole purpose of adding to our
knowledge that is fundamental and generalizable. It is called pure or basic
research.
• The research works of professors, scholars, and other researchers devoted to
generate new knowledge in particular areas of their interest can be called
fundamental research (Pant, 2009, p.7).
• It is not applied to find the solution of immediate problem but to generate more
knowledge and understanding of the phenomena and problems that occur in
several areas and to build theories based on the research results.
• Such theories become the foundation for further study of the phenomena. This
process of building on existing knowledge is the genesis for theory building
(Sekaran, 2000). It is thus typical kind of research that can contribute to formation
of new theory
• Quantitative research is based on the quantitative measurements of
some characteristics. It is applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantities.
• Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon. For
instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for
human behavior (why people think or do certain things), we can use
qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the
underlying motives and desires using in depth interviews for the
purpose. It is important in the behavioral sciences to discover the
underlying motives or behaviors of people.
• Conceptual research is related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is
used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones.
• Empirical is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which
are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. It is called
as experimental type of research. Such researches aim at discovering
of facts based on the empirically gathered primary data (Saravanavel,
2005, p. 14). In empirical research, the evidences are gathered through
experiments or empirical studies which are considered to be the most
powerful support possible for testing a given hypothesis
 WHAT YOU CAN DO WITH RESEARCH?

Categorize: This involves forming a typology of objects, events or concepts, i.e.

a set of names or ‘boxes’ into which these can be sorted. This can be useful in
explaining which ‘things’ belong together and how. 
Describe: Descriptive research relies on observation as a means of collecting
data. It attempts to examine situations in order to establish what is the norm, i.e.
what can be predicted to happen again under the same circumstances.
Explain: This is a descriptive type of research specifically designed to deal with
complex issues. It aims to move beyond ‘just getting the facts’ in order to make
sense of the myriad other elements involved, such as human, political, social,
cultural and contextual.
Evaluate: This involves making judgements about the quality of objects or events.
Quality can be measured either in an absolute sense or on a comparative basis. To be
useful, the methods of evaluation must be relevant to the context and intentions of
the research.
Compare: Two or more contrasting cases can be examined to highlight differences
and similarities between them, leading to a better understanding of phenomena.
Correlate: The relationships between two phenomena are investigated to see
whether and how they influence each other. The relationship might be just a loose
link at one extreme or a direct link when one phenomenon causes another. These are
measured as levels of association.
Predict :This can sometimes be done in research areas where correlations are
already known. Predictions of possible future behaviour or events are made on
the basis that if there has been a strong relationship between two or more
characteristics or events in the past, then these should exist in similar
circumstances in the future, leading to predictable outcomes.
 Control: Once you understand an event or situation, you may be able to find
ways to control it. For this you need to know what the cause and effect
relationships are and that you are capable of exerting control over the vital
ingredients. All of technology relies on this ability to control.
 STATISTICS & PSYCHOLOGY

• The word statistics has been derived from Latin word ‘status’ or Italian ‘Statista’
meaning statesman. Professor Gott Fried Achenwall used it in the 18th century.
During early period, these words were used for political state of the region.
• The word ‘Statista’ was used to keep the records of census or data related to wealth
of a state. Gradually, its meaning and usage extended and there onwards its nature
also changed.
• The word statistics is used to convey different meanings in singular and plural sense.
Therefore it can be defined in two different ways.
• The term “statistics” is used in two senses: first in plural sense meaning a collection
of numerical facts or estimates—the figure themselves. It is in this sense that the
public usually think of statistics, e.g., figures relating to population, profits of
different units in an industry etc.
• Secondly, as a singular noun, the term ‘statistics’ denotes the various methods
adopted for the collection, analysis and interpretation of the facts numerically
represented. In singular sense, the term ‘statistics’ is better described as
statistical methods. In our study of the subject, we shall be more concerned with the
second meaning of the word ‘statistics’.
• Statistics has been defined differently by different authors and each author has
assigned new limits to the field which should be included in its scope. We can do
no better than give selected definitions of statistics by some authors and then come
to the conclusion about the scope of the subject.
 Definition
A.L. Bowley defines, “Statistics may be called the science of counting”. At another
place he defines, “Statistics may be called the science of averages”. Both these
definitions are narrow and throw light only on one aspect of Statistics.
According to King, “The science of statistics is the method of judging collective,
natural or social, phenomenon from the results obtained from the analysis or
enumeration or collection of estimates”.
Many a time counting is not possible and estimates are required to be made. Therefore,
Boddington defines it as “the science of estimates and probabilities”. But this definition
also does not cover the entire scope of statistics. The statistical methods are methods for
the collection, analysis and interpretation of numerical data and form a basis for the
analysis and comparison of the observed phenomena.
In the words of Croxton &Cowden, “Statistics may be defined as the
collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data”.
Horace Secrist has given an exhaustive definition of the term satistics in
the plural sense. According to him:“By statistics we mean aggregates
of facts affected to a marked extent by a multiplicity of causes
numerically expressed, enumerated or estimated according to
reasonable standards of accuracy collected in a systematic manner
for a pre-determined purpose and placed in relation to each other”.
This definition makes it quite clear that as numerical statement of facts, ‘statistic’ should
possess the following characteristics.

1. Statistics are aggregate of facts A single age of 20 or 30 years is not statistics, a series of
ages are. Similarly, a single figure relating to production, sales, birth, death etc., would not be
statistics although aggregates of such figures would bestatistics because of their
comparability and relationship.

2. Statistics are affected to a marked extent by a multiplicity of causes

A number of causes affect statistics in a particular field of enquiry, e.g., in production
statistics are affected by climate, soil, fertility, availability of raw materials and methods of
quick transport.
3.Statistics are numerically expressed, enumerated or estimated:The
subject of statistics is concerned essentially with facts expressed in
numerical form—with their quantitative details but not qualitative
descriptions. Therefore, facts indicated by terms such as ‘good’,
‘poor’ are not statistics unless a numerical equivalent, is assigned to
each expression. Also this may either be enumerated or estimated,
where actual enumeration is either not possible or is very difficult.
4. Statistics are numerated or estimated according to reasonable standard of accuracy
Personal bias and prejudices of the enumeration should not enter into the counting or estimation of figures,
otherwise conclusions from the figures would not be accurate. The figures should be counted or estimated
according to reasonable standards of accuracy. Absolute accuracy is neither necessary nor sometimes possible in
social sciences. But whatever standard of accuracy is once adopted, should be used throughout the process of
collection or estimation.

5. Statistics should be collected in a systematic manner for a predetermined purpose

The statistical methods to be applied on the purpose of enquiry since figures are always collected with some
purpose. If there is no predetermined purpose, all the efforts in collecting the figures may prove to be wasteful.
The purpose of a series of ages of husbands and wives may be to find whether young husbands have young
wives and the old husbands have old wives.
6.
6. Statistics should be capable of being placed in relation to each
other:The collected figure should be comparable and well-connected in
the same department of inquiry. Ages of husbands are to be compared
only with the corresponding ages of wives, and not with, say, heights of
trees.
 
 Type of Statistics

Descriptive

Based on
the Inferential
Functions
Correlational
 DESCRIPTIVE Vs INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

• When analysing data, such as the marks achieved by 100 students for a piece of
coursework, it is possible to use both descriptive and inferential statistics in your
analysis of their marks. Typically, in most research conducted on groups of
people, you will use both descriptive and inferential statistics to analyse your
results and draw conclusions. So what are descriptive and inferential statistics?
And what are their differences?
 Descriptive Statistics
The branch which deals with descriptions of obtained data is known
as descriptive statistics. On the basis of these descriptions a particular
group of population is defined for corresponding characteristics. The
descriptive statistics include classification, tabulation measures of
central tendency and variability. These measures enable the
researchers to know about the tendency of data or the scores, which
further enhance the ease in description of the phenomena
Inferential statistics: Inferential statistics deals with the drawing of
conclusions about large group of individuals (population) on the basis of
observations of few participants from them or about the events which
are yet to occur on the basis of past events. It provide tools to compute
the probabilities of future behaviour of the subjects.
Correlational statistics: The obtained data are disclosed for their inter
Introduction to Statistics correlations in this type of statistics. It includes
various types of techniques to compute the correlations among data.
Correlational statistics also provide description about sample or
population for their further analyses to explore the significance of their
differences.
 Parametric

On the basis
of
Distribution
Data Nonparametric
statistics
 Parametric statistics

Parametric statistics is defined to have an assumption of normal

distribution for its population under study. “Parametric statistics
refers to those statistical techniques that have been developed on
the assumption that the data are of a certain type. In particular
the measure should be an interval scale and the scores should be
drawn from a normal distribution”.
Assumptions
The first characteristic of parametric statistics is that it moves after confirming
its population’s property of normal distribution. The normal distribution of a
population shows its symmetrical spread over the continuum of –3 SD to +3
SD and keeping unimodal shape as its mean, median, and mode coincide.
If the samples are from various populations then it is assumed to have same
variance ratio among them.
The samples are independent in their selection. The chances of occurrence of
any event or item out of the total population are equal and any item can be
selected in the sample.
This reflects the randomized nature of sample which also happens to be a good
tool to avoid any experimenter bias.
• Nonparametric statistics are those statistics which are not based on the
assumption of normal distribution of population. Therefore, these are also
known as distribution free statistics. They are not bound to be used with
interval scale data or normally distributed data. The data with non-continuity
are to be tackled with these statistics. In the samples where it is difficult to
maintain the assumption of normal distribution, nonparametric statistics are
used for analysis. The samples with small number of items are treated with
nonparametric statistics because of the absence of normal distribution. It can
be used even for nominal data along with the ordinal data. Some of the usual
nonparametric statistics include chi square, Spearman’s rank difference
method of correlation, Kendall’s rank difference method, Mann-Whitney U
test, etc.
 The importance of Statistics
The increasing demand for more and better statistics has brought to the front
position the importance of statistics as a strategic resource for national and
international development.
Statistics are now recognized internationally as part of the enabling environment for
the development.
They constitute an essential element in improving the ability of the government to
develop appropriate policies, manage the economy and social development reform
policies, monitor improvements in the living standards of the people and report back
this progress to the public using solid evidences.
.
• Statistics are needed by organizations other than governments (both
international and local).According to the World Bank, good quality statistical
data are needed to manage results, to set targets and monitor outcomes, to
design development policies and strategies, to make evidence-based
decisions about allocation and management of scarce resource
• The coming quotation was said by minister of finance and economic
development Tanzania, honorable Mustafa H Mkulo (MP) during a press
conference on official launching of new GDP estimates, 2001.“You can’t
measure the government’s performance without having good statistics
from a reliable source which is authorized to provide official statistics in
the country”
  
Uses of statistics

• statistics can be defined as a branch of applied research which is

concerned with the development and application methods for
collecting, organizing, presenting, analyzing and interpreting
quantitative data in such a way that the reliability of conclusions based
on data may be evaluated in terms of probability statements.
• The statistical methods and procedures are use full for socio-economic
development. Statistical methods are applied to enormous numerical
facts with an objective that “behind every figure there’s a story”.
Thus, it can be used in a diversified field of   study; some of the
functions of statistics can be as follows:
To present facts in a definite form.
Statistics facilitates comparisons.
Statistics gives guidance in the formulation of suitable policies.
Statistics can be formulated well in advance for predictions.
Statistical methods are helpful in formulating, testing hypothesis and
develop new theories.
 Role of Statistics in Psychology
Statistics allow psychologists to:
Organize Data: When dealing with an enormous amount of information, it is all
too easy to become overwhelmed. Statistics allow psychologists to present data in
ways that are easier to comprehend. Visual displays such as graphs, pie
charts, frequency distribution and scatterplots make it possible for researchers to get
a better overview of the data and to look for patterns that they might otherwise miss.
Describe Data: Think about what happens when researchers collect a great deal of
information about a group of people. The U.S. Census is a great example. Using
statistics, we can accurately describe the information that has been gathered in a
way that is easy to understand. Descriptive statistics provide a way to summarize
what already exists in a given population, such as how many men and women there
are, how many children there are, or how many people are currently employed.
• Make Inferences Based Upon Data: By using what's known as
inferential statistics, researchers can infer things about a given sample
or population. Psychologists use the data they have collected to test
a hypothesis  or a guess about what they predict will happen. Using
this type of statistical analysis, researchers can determine the
likelihood that a hypothesis should be either accepted or rejected.
To present facts in a definite form : Without a statistical study our ideas are likely to
be vague, indefinite and hazy, but figures helps as to represent things in their true
perspective. For example, the statement that some students out of 1,400 who had
appeared, for a certain examination, were declared successful would not give as much
information as the one that 300 students out of 400 who took the examination were
declared successful.
To simplify unwieldy and complex data : It is not easy to treat large numbers and
hence they are simplified either by taking a few figures to serve as a representative
sample or by taking average to give a bird’s eye view of the large masses. For
example, complex data may be simplified by presenting them in the form of a table,
graph or diagram, or representing it through an average etc.
To use it as a technique for making comparisons : The significance of certain
figures can be better appreciated when they are compared with others of the same type.
The comparison between two different groups is best represented by certain statistical
methods, such as average, coefficients, rates, ratios, etc.
To enlarge individual experience : An individual’s knowledge is limited to what he can observe
and see; and that is a very small part of the social organism. His knowledge is extended n various
ways by studying certain conclusions and results, the basis of which are numerical investigations.
For example, we all have general impression that the cost of living has increased. But to know to
what extent the increase has occurred, and how far the rise in prices has affected different income
groups, it would be necessary to ascertain the rise in prices of articles consumed by them.
To provide guidance in the formulation of policies : The purpose of statistics is to enable correct
decisions, whether they are taken by a businessman or Government. In fact statistics is a great
servant of business in management, governance and development. Sampling methods are employed
in industry in tacking the problem of standardisation of products. Big business houses maintain a
separate department for statistical intelligence, the work of which is to collect, compare and
coordinate figures for formulating future policies of the firm regarding production and sales.
To enable measurement of the magnitude of a phenomenon : But for the development of the
statistical science, it would not be possible to estimate the population of a country or to know the
quantity of wheat, rice and other agricultural commodities produced in the country during any year.
 Limitation
 The use of statistics is limited numerical studies: Statistical methods cannot be applied to study the nature of all
type of phenomena. Statistics deal with only such phenomena as are capable of being quantitatively measured and
numerically expressed. For, example, the health, poverty and intelligence of a group of individuals, cannot be
quantitatively measured, and thus are not suitable subjects for statistical study.
 Statistical methods deal with population or aggregate of individuals rather than with individuals. When we say
that the average height of an Indian is 1 metre 80 centimetres, it shows the height not of an individual but as found by
the study of all individuals.

Statistical relies on estimates and approximations : Statistical laws are not exact laws like mathematical or
chemical laws. They are derived by taking a majority of cases and are not true for every individual. Thus the statistical
inferences are uncertain.

 . Statistical results might lead to fallacious conclusions by deliberate manipulation of figures and unscientific
handling. This is so because statistical results are represented by figures, which are liable to be manipulated. Also the
data placed in the hands of an expert may lead to fallacious results. The figures may be stated without their context or
may be applied to a fact other than the one to which they really relate. An interesting example is a survey made some
years ago which reported that 33% of all the girl students at John Hopkins University had married University teachers.
Whereas the University had only three girls student at that time and one of them married to a teacher.
 Distrust of Statistics Due to limitations of statistics an attitude of distrust towards it has been developed.
There are some people who place statistics in the category of lying and maintain that, “there are three degrees
of comparison in lying-lies, dammed lies and statistics”. But this attitude is not correct. The person who is
handling statistics may be a liar or inexperienced. But that would be the fault not of statistics but of the
person handling them. The person using statistics should not take them at their face value. He should check
the result from an independent source. Also only experts should handle the statistics otherwise they may be
misused. It may be noted that the distrust of statistics is due more to insufficiency of knowledge regarding the
nature, limitations and uses of statistics then to any fundamental inadequacy in the science of statistics.
Medicines are meant for curing people, but if they are unscientifically handle by quacks, they may prove fatal
to the patient. In both the cases, the medicine is the same; but its usefulness or harmfulness depends upon the
man who handles it. We cannot blame medicine for such a result. Similarly, if a child cuts his finger with a
sharp knife, it is not a knife that is to be blamed, but the person who kept the knife at a place that the child
could reach it. These examples help us in emphasising that if statistical facts are misused by some people it
would be wrong to blame the statistics as such. It is the people who are to be blamed. In fact statistics are like
clay which can be moulded in any way.
Level of Measurement
 Nominal Scale
• Nominal measurement is the lowest level of measurement in nominal measurement
numbers are used to name identify or classified persons,object groups etcIn this
level of measurement, words, letters, and alpha-numeric symbols can be used.
 Suppose there are data about people belonging to three different gender
categories. In this case, the person belonging to the female gender could be
classified as F, the person belonging to the male gender could be classified as M,
and transgendered classified as T.  This type of assigning classification is nominal
level of measurement
In nominal measurement member of any two groups are never equivalent.
• Following statistics can be used in this level of measurement counting frequency
percentage proportion mode and coefficient of country contingency .
• The limitation of nominal measurement is that it is most elementary and simple
 Ordinal Scale
• Ordinal is the second level of measurement in which there is a property of magnitude but not of
equal interval or absolute zero.
• An ordinal measurement number denotes rank order of the object or individuals or number
arranged from highest to lowest or from lowest to highest in ordinal measurement individual may
be grouped according to physical or psychological traits to convey a relationship like greater than
or lesser than.
• Suppose a student scores the highest grade of 100 in the class.  In this case, he would be assigned
the first rank.  Then, another classmate scores the second highest grade of an 92; she would be
assigned the second rank.  A third student scores a 81 and he would be assigned the third rank,
and so on.   The ordinal level of measurement indicates an ordering of the measurements.

• The permissible statistical operational in ordinal measurement are median, percentile rank,
correlation coefficient plus all those which are permissible for the nominal measurement
 Interval Scale
• This is the 3rd level of measurement and includes all characteristics of phenomenal and
ordinal scale of measurement.
• The main feature of interval measurement is that numerical the equal distance on the
scale indicates equal distance in the property of objects being measured.
• In other words here the unit of measurement is constant and equal.
 For example, an interval level of measurement could be the measurement of anxiety
in a student between the score of 10 and 11, this interval is the same as that of a
student who scores between 40 and 41.   A popular example of this level of
measurement is temperature in centigrade, where, for example, the distance between
940C and 960C is the same as the distance between 1000C and 1020C.
• The common statistics used in such measurement mean standard deviation Pearson r.
 Ratio Scale
• It is the highest level of measurement and his all properties of nominal ordinal and interval
scale plus an absolute 0.
• The fourth level of measurement is the ratio level of measurement.  In this level of
measurement, the observations, in addition to having equal intervals, can have a value of
zero as well.  The zero in the scale makes this type of measurement unlike the other types of
measurement, although the properties are similar to that of the interval level of measurement.
 In the ratio level of measurement, the divisions between the points on the scale have an
equivalent distance between them.

• The main feature of ratio scale is that ratio of any two numbers is independent of the unit of
measurement and therefore it can meaningfully be equated for example the ratio 16:28 is
equal to 4:7
• In ratio scale there is a true zero not arbitrary.