MEASUREMENTS AND

INSTRUMENTATION

Lecture-03 (P)

Dr. S.Neeraja
Assistant Professor
Dept. of EECE, GIT
Visakhapatnam
III/IV B.Tech A,B&C - sections
nsajja@gitam.edu

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Subject: Measurements and Instrumentation
Topic for the class: Static and dynamic characteristics
Unit-I: Basic Measurement concepts
Date & Time: 22.07.2021 & 3:00-3:50pm
Dr.S.Neeraja
Assistant Professor
Department of EECE
GITAM Institute of Technology (GIT)
Visakhapatnam – 530045
Email: nsajja@gitam.edu

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Learning Outcome

By the end of this session,

Students will be able to understand the static and dynamic
characteristics of measurement system

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

20-07-2021 Department of EECE EEC451:Satellite Communications 3
Contents:
 Static Characteristics
 Dynamic Characteristics

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Static and Dynamic characteristics

 Performance Characteristics - Characteristics that show the performance of an

instrument.
 Allows users to select the most suitable instrument for specific measuring jobs.
 Two basic characteristics :
 Static characteristics
 Dynamic characteristics
 Static characteristics: Static characteristics refer to the characteristics of the system
when the input is either held constant or varying slowly with time.
 We will define a set of criteria that gives meaningful description of measurement
 No need of dynamic description which involve differential equations

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Static characteristics

Accuracy

Reproducibility and repeatability

Precision

Sensitivity

Range and span

Resolution

Linearity

Drift

Hysteresis

Threshold etc.
21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION
 Dynamic characteristics
 The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are changing rapidly
with time is called dynamic characteristics.
 i.e Measurement quantities are either rapidly vary with time.
 We will examine the relation between input and output
 dynamic description which involves differential equations

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 The three most common variations in the measured quantity:
 Step change
 Linear change
 Sinusoidal change
 Step change-in which the primary element is subjected to an instantaneous
and finite change in measured variable.
 Linear change-in which the primary element is following the measured
variable, changing linearly with time.
 Sinusoidal change-in which the primary element follows a measured
variable, the magnitude of which changes in accordance with a sinusoidal
function of constant amplitude.

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Dynamic characteristics:

 Speed of response
 Measuring lag
 Fidelity

 Dynamic error

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Static characteristics (Contd.)
Accuracy
 It is the degree of closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of
the quantity to be measured --- ability of an instrument to show the exact reading
 Higher the accuracy, lower the error
error = true value - measured value
 The accuracy can be expressed in following ways:
1. Point accuracy: This is the accuracy of instrument specified only at one particular point
of scale. It does not give any information about the accuracy at any other point on the scale.
2. Accuracy as percentage of scale range: When an instrument as uniform scale, its
accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale range.
3. Accuracy as percentage of true value: The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is
to specify it in terms of the true value of the quantity being measured.

 
21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION
 Absolute error or static error (e) = Yn – Xn where Yn : true
value and Xn: measured value
 %error or relative error= (absolute value / true value) *100 =
(e/Yn) * 100 = (Yn – Xn)/Yn *100
 Accuracy A = 1-
 %accuracy a = 100% - % error = A * 100%
 % of error expressed as a full scale deflection= x100

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Problem on finding accuracy
Q1) The expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 80V. However,
the measurement gives a value of 79V. Calculate (a) absolute error (b) %
error (c) relative accuracy (d) % accuracy
 Ans) Absolute error (e) = Yn – Xn = 80-79 = 1V
 %error = (e/Yn) * 100 = 1/ 80 *100 = 1.25%
 Relative Accuracy A = 1- = 1- = 0.9875
 %accuracy a = 100% - % error = A * 100% = 98.75%

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Problem on error and correction

Q1) A voltage has a true value of 150V. An analog indicating instrument

with a scale range of 0 – 200V shows a voltage of 149V. What are the
absolute error and correction. a) absolute error (b) % error (c) relative
accuracy (d) % accuracy e)Express the error as a fraction of true value and
full scale deflection?

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Repeatability and Reproducibility

 Repeatability: It describes the closeness of output readings,

when the same input is applied repetitively over a short period of
time with the same measurement conditions, same instrument and
same observer, same location and same conditions of use
maintained throughout.
 Reproducibility: It describes the closeness of output readings for
the same input when there are changes in the method of
measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location,
conditions of use and time of measurement.

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Precision
 It is the measure of reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity,
precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of
measurements.
 Capability of an instrument to show the same reading when used each time.
 Precision is associated with the random errors of the measurement process
 Quantified by statistical means e.g. standard deviation or range. It is about
the spread of the measurements about the mean value
 how closely two or more measurements of the same quantity agree with one
another

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Precision and Accuracy
 Measurements that are close to the “correct” value are accurate.
 Measurements which are close to each other are precise.
 Measurements can be accurate and precise;
 precise but inaccurate; neither accurate nor precise. Relationship Between Precision & Accuracy

High precision Low precision

low accuracy high accuracy (fluke)

High precision Low precision

high accuracy low accuracy

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Precision can be expressed mathematically as
P =1 -
where Xn = value of nth measurement and = average set of measurement

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Problem on finding precision
Q2) The below table shows the set of 10 measurements that were recorded in
the laboratory. Calculate the precision of the 6th measurement.

= 1005/10 = 100.5
measurement number measurement value Xn
1 98 precision of 6th measurement = 1 -
2 101
3
4
102
97
=1-
5
6
101
100
= 0.995
7 103
8 98
9 106
10 99

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Sensitivity

 The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the
instrument responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in theoutput of an
instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be measured.
 Mathematically it is expressed as,
 Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor = 1/ sensitivity

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Problem

Q) An ammeter requires a change of 2A in its coil to produce a change in deflection of

pointer by 5mm. Determine sensitivity and deflection factor
Ans)
= 5mm/ 2A = 2.5 mm/A
deflection factor = 1/ sensitivity = 1/ (2.5mm/A) = 0.4A/mm

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Range and span

 Range: The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which

an instrument is designed to measure is called its range.
  Span: Algebraic difference between the upper range and lower
range values of the instrument.
 Ex1: A thermometer calibrated between 200oC to 500oC --- >
 Range is 200oC to 500oC and span= 500-200 = 300oC

 Ex2: If range of the instrument is -40oC to +400oC then span=

400-(-40) = 440oC

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Resolution

 Resolution: It is the smallest increment of quantity being

measured which can be detected with certainty by an instrument.
 So if a nonzero input quantity is slowly increased, output reading
will not increase until some minimum change in the input takes
place. This minimum change which causes the change in the
output is called resolution.
 The resolution of an instrument is also referred to as
discrimination of the instrument. The resolution can affect the
accuracy of the measurement.

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Problems on Resolution

 A 0- 100V voltmeter has 200 scale divisions which can be read to

½ division. Determine the resolution of the meter
Ans) 1 scale division = FSD/ no. of divisions = 100/200 = 0.5V
Resolution = ½ x scale division = ½ x 0.5 = 0.25

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Linearity

 It is the proportionality between the input quantity and output

signal.
 Linearity is the closeness of the calibration curve of a measuring
system to a straight line.

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Drift
 Drift : Gradual shift in the measured value over an extended period,
when there is no change in input.
 Drift is an undesired change in the output of a measured variable
over a period of time that is unrelated to the changes in output,
operating conditions, load.
 Drift may be caused by environmental factors mechanical
vibrations, changes in temperatures, stray electric fields, stray
magnetic fields, thermal EMFs.
 Drift is further classified as :
• Zero Drift  
• Span Drift
• Zonal Drift
21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION
 Drift
 Zero Drift: The zero drift is defined as the deviation observed in the instrument output
with time from the initial value, when all other measurement conditions are constant.
 The whole instrument calibration may gradually shift by the same amount
 Span Drift: It is defined as the amount by which an instrument sensitivity of
measurement varies as ambient conditions change.(i.e . Environmental fluctuations).
 It also called as sensitivity drift or scale factor drift.  
 Zonal Drift: In case if the drift occurs only a certain portion of the span of an
instrument. It is called zonal drift.  

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Hysteresis

 Hysteresis exists not only in magnetic circuits, but in instruments also.

 It is the non-coincidence of loading and unloading curves.
 Arises due to the fact that all the energy is put into the stressed parts
when loading is not recoverable upon unloading.
 • Mechanical systems will often show a small difference in length as the
direction of the applied force is reversed.
 • The same effect arises as a magnetic field is reversed in a magnetic
material.• This characteristic is called hysteresis.
 • Hysteresis is defined as the magnitude of error caused in the output for
a given value of input, when this value is approached from opposite
directions ; i.e. from ascending order & then descending order.

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Hysteresis

 Causes are backlash, elastic deformations, magnetic

characteristics, frictional effects (mainly).
 • Hysteresis can be reduced by proper design and selection of
the mechanical components, introducing greater flexibility
and providing suitable heat treatment to the materials.

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Threshold

 If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero

there will be some minimum value below which no output
change can be detected, called as threshold.(or) minimum
value of input that produces non zero output
 Time required by the measurement system to begin to
respond to a change in the measurand - dead time.
 The largest change of the input quantity for which there is no
output of the instrument -- dead zone.

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Dynamic characteristics
 Speed of response: It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds
to changes in the measured quantity.
 Measuring lag: It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to
changes in the measured quantity.

The measuring lags are of two types:

1. Retardation type: In this case the response of the measurement system begins
immediately after the change in measured quantity has occurred.
2. Time delay lag: In this case the response of the measurement system begins after a
delay time after the application of the input.
 Fidelity: It is the ability of the system to reproduce the output in the same form as the input
(faithful reproduction).
 Dynamic error: It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with
time & the value indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is
also called measurement error.

Sunday, July Department of EECE, GIT Course Code and Course Title: EEI483: ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION
2, 2023
Analysis of Measurement characteristics :
 1. The expected value of the current through a resistor is 20mA. However, the
measurement gives a value of 18mA. Calculate (a) absolute error (b) % error (c)
relative accuracy (d) % accuracy
 2.A set of independent current measurements were recorded as 10.03,10.10, 10.11 and
10.08A.Calcualte average current and range of error.
 3.A Wheatstone bridge requires a change of 6 ohm in the unknown arm of the bridge
to produce a change in deflection of 2.4mm of the galvanometer. Calculate the static
sensitivity and deflection factor.
 4.An Ammeter has 100 divisions on its index scale and is provided with range
multiplier switches of 1, 10and 100.Find the range of the instrument and scale range.
 5.The below table shows the set of 10 measurements that were recorded in the
laboratory. Calculate the precision of the 5th measurement.

22/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

 Thank you

21/07/2021 Department of EECE 19EEI373: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION