Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Non Conventional Energy Sources
Non Conventional Energy Sources
Non Conventional Energy Sources
Assistant. Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
NIE Institute of Technology
Mysuru, Karnataka, India
Introduction
• The word ‘energy’ itself is derived from the Greek word ‘en-ergon’,
which means ‘in-work’ or ‘work content’. The work output depends on
the energy input. Energy can be defined as the ability to do work.
8.35%
1.94%
12.65%
68.6%
12.92%
12%
66.6%
16.52%
• Functions of BEE:
– arrange and organize training of personnel and specialists in the techniques for efficient use of
energy and its conservation;
– develop testing and certification procedures and promote testing facilities;
– strengthen consultancy services;
– create awareness and disseminate information;
– promote research and development;
– formulate and facilitate implementation of pilot projects and demonstration projects;
– promote use of energy efficient processes, equipment, devices and systems;
– take steps to encourage preferential treatment for use of energy efficient equipment or
appliances;
– promote innovative financing of energy efficiency projects;
– give financial assistance to institutions for promoting efficient use of energy and its
conservation;
– prepare educational curriculum on efficient use of energy and its conservation and
– implement international co-operation programmes relating to efficient use of energy and its
conservation.
What are Energy Efficiency Label?
• Economic aspect:
– Reduction in cost of product
– New job opportunities
• Environmental aspect:
– Reduce emission of greenhouse gasses
• Conservation of Non-Renewable Energy aspect:
– Development of Renewable energy sources
– Conserve fossil fuel for future
Principle of Energy Conservation
• Recycling of waste-
• Modernization of technology-
• Waste heat utilization-
• Proper housekeeping-
• Judicial use of proper types of energy-
• Judicial use of proper type of fuel-
• Adopting daylight saving time-
• Proper operation and maintenance-
ECOs (Energy conservation Opportunities)
• Class A. Simple ECOs (30-40%)
– Switch of the load when not in use.
– Proper housekeeping.
1 4
Fusion reaction : 4(H1) He2 26.7 MeV
Solar Energy
Thermal Radiation
• Solar radiation varies with the day of the year as the sun-
earth distance varies.
• An empirical fit of the measured radiation data
360n
I ext I sc [1 0.033 cos( )]
365
Where,
30%
19%
51%
Solar Radiation on Earth’s Surface
i. Pyranometer:
– A pyranometer is designed to measure global radiation, usually on a
horizontal surface, but can also be used on an inclined surface.
When shaded from direct beam radiation by using a shadow band, a
pyranometer measures diffused radiation.
ii. Pyrheliometer:
– An instrument that measures beam radiation by using a long narrow
tube to collect only beam radiation from the sun at normal
incidence.
iii. Sunshine Recorder:
– It measures the sunshine hours in a day.
Pyranometer Setup
A pyrheliometer is an instrument
for measurement of direct beam
solar irradiance. Sunlight enters
the instrument through a window
and is directed onto a thermopile
which converts heat to an
electrical signal that can be
recorded.
Where,
Lst = standard longitude used for measuring standard time of the country.
Lloc = longitude of the observer’s location.
E = the correction arising out of the variation in the length of the solar day . It is
also known as Equation of Time. 360
= 9.87 sin 2B – 7.53 cos B – 1.5 sin B (min.) Where, B ( ) (n 81)
365
Solar Radiation Geometry
• Latitude (Angle of latitude), ϕ:
Angle made by a radial line joining the given location to the centre of the earth with its
projection on the equator plane.
Solar Radiation Geometry
• Declination, δ:
The angular displacement of the sun from the plane of the earth’s equator.
360
23.45 sin (284 n)
365
Solar Radiation Geometry
• Hour angle, ω:
The hour angle at any moment is the angle through which the earth must
turn to bring the meridian of the observer directly in line with the sun’s ray.
The angle between the sun’s ray and its projection on a horizontal surface.
Solar Radiation Geometry
The angle between the sun’s ray and the perpendicular (normal) to the
horizontal plane.
Solar Radiation Geometry
The angle on a horizontal plane, between the line due south and the projection of the
sun’s ray on the horizontal plane.
+ve
-ve
The angle in the horizontal plane, between the line due south and the
horizontal projection of the normal to the inclined plane surface (collector).
Solar Radiation Geometry
The angle between the inclined plane surface (collector) and the horizontal
plane.
The angle between the sun’s ray incident on the plane surface (collector)
and the normal to that surface.
Angle of Incidence, θi
• In general θi can be expressed as:
cos i (cos cos sin sin cos ) cos cos cos sin sin sin
sin (sin cos cos sin cos )
Since 15° of hour angle is equivalent to one-hour duration, the sunshine hour or
daylight hour td can be given as:
2 1
t d cos tan tan
15
Solar Collectors
• A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight. A collector is
a device for capturing solar radiation.
Classification of Collectors
Types of Collectors
Flat Plate Collector
A typical flat-plate collector is a metal box with a glass or plastic cover (called glazing)
on top and a dark-colored absorber plate on the bottom. The sides and bottom of the
collector are usually insulated to minimize heat loss.
Flat Plate Collector
• Flat-plate collectors are the most common solar collectors for use in
solar water-heating systems in homes and in solar space heating. A flat-plate collector
consists basically of an insulated metal box with a glass or plastic cover (the glazing)
and a dark-colored absorber plate. Solar radiation is absorbed by the absorber plate
and transferred to a fluid that circulates through the collector in tubes. In an
air-based collector the circulating fluid is air, whereas in a liquid-based collector it is
usually water.
• Flat-plate collectors heat the circulating fluid to a temperature considerably less than
that of the boiling point of water and are best suited to applications where the
demand temperature is 30-70°C (86-158°F) and/or for applications that require heat
during the winter months.
• Air-based collectors are typically used for heating buildings and drying crops. Liquid-
based may be glazed or unglazed. Glazed liquid collectors are the commonest type of
solar collector for providing domestic and commercial water and for heating indoor
swimming pools. Unglazed collectors are most often used for heating outdoor pools. A
special type of unglazed collector called a perforated plate collector is used to preheat
ventilation air for commercial buildings or, in some cases, for drying crops.
• Flat collectors can be mounted in a variety of ways, depending on the type of building,
application, and size of collector. Options include mounting on a roof, in the roof itself,
or free-standing.
Evacuated Tube Solar Collectors
• Evacuated tube solar collectors convert energy from the sun into usable
heat in a solar water heating system. This energy can be used for
domestic and commercial hot water heating, pool heating, space heating
or even air conditioning.
• Construction:
• Evacuated Tube (ET)
– Absorbs solar energy and converts it to usable heat. A vacuum between the two glass layers
insulates against heat loss.
– The Heat Transfer Fin helps to transfer heat to the Heat Pipe.
• Heat Pipe (HP)
– Copper vacuum pipe that transfers the heat from within the ET up to the manifold.
• Manifold
– Insulated box containing the copper header pipe. The header is a pair of contoured copper
pipes with dry connect sockets that the heat pipes plug into.
• Mounting Frame
– Strong and easy to install with a range of attachment options.
Evacuated Tube Solar Collectors
Concentrating Controllers
Parabolic Trough Collector
Parabolic Collector Power Plant
Concentrating Controllers
Concentrating Controllers
Concentrating Controllers
Solar Heating & Cooling
• Passive solar heating:
– A passive solar heating system is a way for the building materials to collect, store, and
distribute solar energy by natural convection, conduction, and radiation. The building
itself acts as thermal mass to store the heat it collects during the day which is then
released during the night. Homes with high potential for solar electricity usually have
good potential for passive solar heat.
• Direct Gain:
– Direct gain is the simplest and most common passive heating system.
Radiant heat shines directly into the living space through south facing
windows and is absorbed by the thermal mass. The building itself acts
as a storage device for the heat.
• Indirect Gain:
– A dark colored heat collector is placed in front of a window directly in
the sunlight. Sunlight goes through the south facing glass windows
and hits the heat collector. The heat collector in turn heats the air
flowing inside it which creates the natural warm air convection loop.
• Isolated Gain:
– Isolated gain systems collect solar energy in a location separate from
the space desired to be heated.
Solar Passive Cooling
• Passive cooling systems are least expensive means of cooling a home
which maximizes the efficiency of the building envelope without any use
of mechanical devices.
• It rely on natural heat-sinks to remove heat from the building. They derive
cooling directly from evaporation, convection, and radiation without using
any intermediate electrical devices.
• All passive cooling strategies rely on daily changes in temperature and
relative humidity.
• The applicability of each system depends on the climatic conditions.
• Methods of Passive cooling:
– Natural Ventilation;
– Shading;
– Wind Towers;
– Earth Air Tunnels;
– Evaporative Cooling;
– Passive Down Draught Cooling
Solar Vapour Compression Refrigeration
Refrigerants:
HCFCs (R-22, used in most
homes today) and HFCs (
R-134a, used in most cars)
Solar Cookers
• Types:
– Box Cooker
– Panel Cooker
– Solar Funnel Cooker
– Parabolic Cooker
Box Cooker:
• The power delivered by a solar cell is the product of current and voltage ( I x V ).
• With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not connected to any load, the current will be
at its minimum (zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as the
solar cells open circuit voltage, or Voc. At the other extreme, when the solar cell is short
circuited, that is the positive and negative leads connected together, the voltage across
the cell is at its minimum (zero) but the current flowing out of the cell reaches its
maximum, known as the solar cells short circuit current, or Isc.
I-V Characteristics of Solar cell
• Efficiency (η):
– Efficiency is the ratio of the electrical power output Pout, compared to the solar power
input, Pin, into the PV cell. Pout can be taken to be PMAX since the solar cell can be
operated up to its maximum power output to get the maximum efficiency.
I-V Characteristics of Solar cell
• Temperature Measurement Considerations
– The crystals used to make PV cells, like all semiconductors, are sensitive to temperature.
When a PV cell is exposed to higher temperatures, ISC increases slightly,
while VOC decreases more significantly.
Solar Photovotaic System
Module Structure
• A PV module consists of a number of interconnected solar cells (typically
36 connected in series) encapsulated into a single, long-lasting, stable
unit.
• The two key functions of encapsulation are to prevent mechanical
damage to the solar cells and to prevent water or water vapour from
corroding the electrical contacts.
Solar Photovotaic System
Maximizing The Solar PV Output And
Load Matching
• Mechanical tracking and orienting the panel to receive
maximum solar radiation.
• Electrically tracking the operating point by manipulating the
load to maximize the power output .
Maximum Power point Tracker (MPPT)
MMPT is a dc-dc switching voltage regulator. They take the DC input from the solar
panels, change it to high frequency AC, and convert it back down to a different DC
voltage and current to exactly match the panels to the batteries.
Maximum Power Point Tracking is electronic tracking - usually digital. The charge
controller looks at the output of the panels, and compares it to the battery voltage.
• Wind pump
– Water transport in remote areas.
• Off-Grid electrical power source
– House hold applications.
• Grid-connected electrical power source
– Wind farms.
Types of Wind Turbines
25 m/s
5 m/s
12 m/s
Biomass Energy
Photosynthesis Process
• Photosynthesis is the making (synthesis) of organic structures and
chemical energy stores by the action of solar radiation (photo).
• Solar radiation incident on green plants and other photosynthetic
organisms relates to two main effects: (1) temperature control for
chemical reactions to proceed, especially in leaves, and (2) photo
excitation of electrons for the production of oxygen and carbon
structural material.
• The fixation of one carbon atom from atmospheric CO2 to carbohydrate
proceeds by a series of stages in green plants, including algae:
– Reactions in light, in which photons produce protons from H 2O, with O2 as an
important by-product, and electrons are excited in two stages to produce strong
reducing chemicals.
– Reactions not requiring light (called dark reactions), in which these reducing chemicals
reduce CO2 to carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
Biomass
• Biomass resources suitable for energy production covers a wide range of
materials, from firewood collected in farmlands and natural woods to
agricultural and forestry crops grown specifically for energy production
purposes. It includes timber processing residues, solid municipal waste
and sewage, aquatic flora, etc. Biomass can be divided into four sub-
categories:
– wood, logging and agricultural residue
– animal dung
– solid industrial waste
– landfill biogas.
Bioenergy Definitions
• Bagasse: Sugar cane refuse left after pressing the juice from
the cane
• Bioenergy: Energy derived from biomass
• Biomass: Mass of plant material formed from solar energy,
water, and air; any organic material that is renewable
• Coalfire: To burn an additional fuel with the primary fuel, such
as bagasse or sawdust with coal
• IWS: Industrial Waste Stream
– Waste wood, plastics, fiber; same kind of discard
• MWS: Municipal Waste Stream, or MSW, municipal solid waste
– Trash, plant trimmings, garbage (batteries, heavy metals, poisons,
chemicals?) contaminate the air
Sources and Availability
• Three classifications
– Thermochemical, heat
– Biochemical
– Agrochemical
Thermochemical, heat Process
• Direct combustion for immediate heat.
• Dry homogeneous biomass is preferred.
• Pyrolysis
• Biomass is heated either in the absence of air or by the partial combustion of some
of the biomass in a restricted air or oxygen supply
• Products are extremely varied, consisting of gases, vapours, liquids and oils, and
solid char and ash. The output depends on temperature, type of input material and
treatment process
• If output of combustible gas is the main product, the process is called gasification.
• A wide range of pre-treatment and process operations are possible. These normally
involve sophisticated chemical control and industrial scale of manufacture.
• Methanol production is such a process, e.g. for liquid fuel.
• Of particular importance are processes that break down cellulose and starches into
sugars, for subsequent fermentation.
Biochemical Process
• Aerobic digestion
• In the presence of air, microbial aerobic metabolism of biomass generates
heat with the emission of CO2, but not methane.
• This process is of great significance for the biological carbon cycle, e.g.
decay of forest litter, but is not used significantly for commercial
bioenergy.
• Anaerobic digestion
• In the absence of free oxygen, certain microorganisms can obtain their
own energy supply by reacting with carbon compounds of medium
reduction level to produce both CO2 and fully reduced carbon as CH4.
• The process (the oldest biological ‘decay’ mechanism) may also be called
‘fermentation’, but is usually called ‘digestion’ because of the similar
process that occurs in the digestive tracts of ruminant animals. The
evolved mix of CO2, CH4 and trace gases is called biogas as a general
term, but may be named sewage gas or landfill-gas as appropriate.
Biochemical Process
• Alcoholic fermentation
• Ethanol is a volatile liquid fuel that may be used in place of refined
petroleum. It is manufactured by the action of micro-organisms and is
therefore a fermentation process. Conventional fermentation has sugars
as feedstock.
• Biophotolysis
• Photolysis is the splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen by the action
of light. Recombination occurs when hydrogen is burnt or exploded as a
fuel in air. Certain biological organisms produce, or can be made to
produce, hydrogen in biophotolysis. Similar results can be obtained
chemically, without living organisms, under laboratory conditions.
Commercial exploitation of these effects has not yet occurred.
Agrochemical Process
• Fuel extraction.
• Occasionally, liquid or solid fuels may be obtained directly from living or freshly cut
plants. The materials are called exudates and are obtained by cutting into (tapping)
the stems or trunks of the living plants or by crushing freshly harvested material.
• A well known similar process is the production of natural rubber latex. Related plants
to the rubber plant Herea, such as species of Euphorbia, produce hydrocarbons of
less molecular weight than rubber, which may be used as petroleum substitutes and
turpentine.
• Energy farming
• An outstanding and established example of energy farming is the
sugarcane industry
• The process depends upon the combustion of the crushed cane residue
(bagasse) for powering the mill and factory operations. With efficient
achinery there should be excess energy for the production and sale of by-
products, e.g. molasses, chemicals, animal feed, ethanol, fibre board and
electricity
• Commonly the ethanol becomes a component
• of transport fuel and the excess electricity is sold to the local grid
Advantages and dangers of energy farming
Anaerobic Digestion
• Hydrolysis
– In anaerobic digestion, hydrolysis is the essential first
step, as Biomass is normally comprised of very large
organic polymers, which are otherwise unusable.
Through hydrolysis, these large polymers, namely
proteins, fats and carbohydrates, are broken down
into smaller molecules such as amino acids, fatty
acids, and simple sugars.
• Methanogenesis
– Methanogenesis constitutes the final stage of anaerobic digestion in
which methanogens create methane from the final products of
acetogenesis as well as from some of the intermediate products from
hydrolysis and acidogenesis
Production of Ethanol
• Ethanol, C2H5OH, is produced naturally by certain micro-
organisms from sugars under acidic conditions, i.e. pH 4 to 5.
Production of Ethanol
• Directly from sugarcane
• Usually commercial sucrose is removed from the cane juices, and the
remaining molasses used for the alcohol production process (These
molasses themselves have about 55% sugar content. But if the molasses
have little commercial value, then ethanol production from molasses has
favourable commercial possibilities, especially if the cane residue
(bagasse) is available to provide process heat. In this case the major
reaction is the conversion of sucrose to ethanol:
• In practice the yield is limited by other reactions and the increase in mass
of yeast. Commercial yields are about 80% of those predicted . The
fermentation reactions for other sugars, e.g. glucose, C6H12O6, are very
similar.
Production of Ethanol
• Directly from sugarcane
• The feedstock used in this process is corn stover. The main compounds are
(on dry basis, wt.) cellulose (37.4%), hemicellulose (21.1%) and lignin
(18.0%). The modeling starts just after the washing of the feedstock which
step induces an increase of the feedstock moisture. Three reaction steps
follow:
– Hydrolysis : the feedstock is heated (190°C) at high pressure (12.1 atm) with
an acid catalyst (H2SO4). Most of the hemicellulose is converted to xylose.
– Saccharification : this is an enzymatic reaction that converts the cellulose into
glucose.
– Fermentation : most of the glucose and xylose are converted to ethanol and
carbon dioxide.
Production of Ethanol
• From sugar beet
• Sugar beet is a mid-latitude root crop for obtaining major supplies of sugar. The sugar
can be fermented, but obtaining process heat from the crop residues is, in practice,
not as straightforward as with cane sugar, so ethanol production is more expensive.
• Starch crops, e.g. grain and cassava, can be hydrolyzed to sugars. Starch is the main
energy storage carbohydrate of plants, and is composed of two large molecular weight
components, amylose and amylopectin. These relatively large molecules are essentially
linear, but have branched chains of glucose molecules linked by distinctive carbon
bonds. These links can be broken by enzymes from malts associated with specific
crops, e.g. barley or corn, or by enzymes from certain moulds (fungi). Such methods
are common in whisky distilleries, corn syrup manufacture and ethanol production
from cassava roots. The links can also be broken by acid treatment at pH 1.5 and at 2
atmospheres pressure, but yields are small and the process more expensive than
enzyme alternatives. An important by-product of the enzyme process is the residue
used for cattle feed or soil conditioning.
Production of Ethanol
• From cellulose
• Cellulose comprises about 40% of all biomass dry matter. Apart from its
combustion as part of wood, cellulose is potentially a primary material for
ethanol production on a large scale. It has a polymer structure of linked glucose
molecules, and forms the main mechanical-structure component of the woody
parts of plants. These links are considerably more resistant to breakdown into
sugars under hydrolysis than the equivalent links in starch.
• Cellulose is found in close association with lignin in plants, which discourages
hydrolysis to sugars. Acid hydrolysis is possible as with starch, but the process is
expensive and energy intensive. Hydrolysis is less expensive, and less energy
input is needed if enzymes of natural, wood-rotting fungi are used, but the
process is slow. Prototype commercial processes have used pulped wood or,
more preferably, old newspaper as input. The initial physical breakdown of
woody material is a difficult and expensive stage, usually requiring much
electricity for the rolling and hammering machines. Although not yet generally
applied commercially, these processes may allow ethanol from biomass to
compete commercially with fossil petroleum.
Ethanol Fuel Use
• Liquid fuels are of great importance because of their ease of handling and
controllable combustion in engines.
• Anhydrous ethanol is a liquid between −117°C and+78°C, with a flash point
of 130°C and an ignition temperature of 423°C, and so has the
characteristics of a commercial liquid fuel, being used as a direct substitute
or additive for petrol (gasoline), and is used in three ways.
– 1. As 95% (hydrous) ethanol, used directly in modified and dedicated spark-ignition
engines;
– 2. Mixed with the fossil petroleum in dry conditions to produce gasohol, as used in
unmodified spark-ignition engines, perhaps retuned;
– 3. as an emulsion with diesel fuel for diesel compression engines (this may be called
diesohol, but is not common).
• The reactions are slightly exothermic, with typical heat of reaction being
about 15MJkg−1 dry digestible material, equal to about 250kJ per mole of
C6H10O5.
• If the input material had been dried and burnt, the heat of combustion
• would have been about 16MJkg−1. Only about 10% of the potential heat
• of combustion need be lost in the digestion process. This is 90%
conversion efficiency.
Basic Processes and Energetic
• It is generally considered that three ranges of temperature favour
particular types of bacteria. Digestion at higher temperature
proceeds more rapidly than at lower temperature, with gas yield
rates doubling at about every 5C of increase. The temperature
ranges are (1) psicrophilic, about 20°C, (2) mesophilic, about 35°C,
and (3) thermophilic, about 55°C. The biochemical processes occur
in three stages, each facilitated by distinct sets of anaerobic bacteria
– 1. Insoluble biodegradable materials, e.g. cellulose, polysaccharides and
fats, are broken down to soluble carbohydrates and fatty acids
(hydrogenesis). This occurs in about a day at 25°C in an active digester
– 2. Acid forming bacteria produce mainly acetic and propionic acid
(acidogenesis). This stage likewise takes about one day at 25°C.
– 3. Methane forming bacteria slowly, in about 14 days at 25°C, complete the
digestion to a maximum ∼70%CH4 and minimum ∼30%CO2 with trace
amounts of H2 and perhaps H2S (methanogenesis). H2 may play an essential
role, and indeed some bacteria, e.g. Clostridium, are distinctive in
producing H2 as the final product.
Biomethane through gasification
• Direct use:
– District Heating System
– Electricity generation
– Heat pumps
Types of Geothermal Resources
– Availability:
• Can Occur Within a Couple of Miles of Earth’s
Surface Where Earth’s Crust Is Very Thin – i.e.,
Closer to Molten Magma at Core
• Flash Steam Power Plants, which are the most common, use
water with temperatures greater than 182°C.
• A single flash condensing cycle is the most common energy
conversion system for utilizing geothermal fluid due to its
simple construction and to the resultant low possibility of
silica precipitation.
• A double flash cycle can produce 15-25% more power output
than a single flash condensing cycle for the same geothermal
fluid conditions.
• Flash power plants typically require resource temperatures in
the range of 177oC to 260oC.
Single Flash System
• In a single flash steam plant, the two-phase flow from the well is
directed to a steam separator; where, the steam is separated from the
water phase and directed to the inlet of the turbine. The water phase is
either used for heat input to a binary system in a direct-use application,
or injected directly back into the reservoir.
• Steam exiting the turbine is directed to a condenser operating at vacuum
pressure.
Single Flash Back Pressure System
• The term “back pressure” is
used because the exhaust
pressure of the turbine is much
higher than the condensing
system. The system does not
use a condenser.
• The steam consumption per
power output is almost double
that from the condensing type
at the same inlet pressure.
• The back pressure units are
very cheap and simple to
install, but inefficient (typically
10-20 tone per hour of steam
for every MW of electricity)
and can have higher
environmental impacts.
Double Flash System
Double Flash System
• The double flash system uses a two stage separation of
geothermal fluid instead of one, resulting in two steam
admission pressures at the turbine.
• Steam from the high pressure turbine is mixed with the steam
from the low pressure separator and then directed to the low
pressure turbine to generate extra power.
• The brine from a low pressure separator is piped to the
reinjection wells.
• From geothermal wells in the island, with a depth between
600 to 2500 m, geothermal fluid with temperature 230 to
250oC is provided and steam in the mixture of 20 to 80%.
Binary Cycle System
• Binary Cycle Power Plants operate with the lower-temperature waters, 74° to
177°C.
• These plants use the heat of the hot water to boil a “working fluid,” usually an
organic compound with a low boiling point.
• This working fluid is then vaporized in a heat exchanger and used to turn a turbine.
• The geothermal water and the working fluid are confined to separate closed loops,
so there are no emissions in the air.
• Because these lower-temperature waters are much more plentiful than high
temperature waters, binary cycle systems will be the dominant geothermal power
plants of the future.
• In the binary process the geotharmal water heats another liquid (“working fluid”),
such as isobutene (e.g., isopentane, propane, freon or ammonia), that boils at a
lower temperature than water.
• The two liquids are kept completely separate through the use of a heat exchanger
used to transfer the heat energy from the geotharmal water to the “working fluid"
in a conventional Rankine Cycle.
Binary Cycle System
Geopressured Resources
17-177
Geothermal’s Harmful Effects
Brine can salinate soil if the water is not injected back into the
reserve after the heat is extracted.
• Power plants that do not inject the cooled water back into the
ground can release H2S, the “rotten eggs” gas. This gas can
cause problems if large quantities escape because inhaling too
much is fatal.
Ocean Energy
Overview of Ocean Energy
Ocean Waves: Kinetic & potential energy associated with ocean waves can
be harnessed using modular types of technologies.
Salinity Gradient: At the mouth of rivers where fresh water mixes with
saltwater, energy associated with the salinity gradient can be harnessed using a
pressure retarded reverse osmosis process and associated conversion
technologies.
Tidal Power
• Tidal power generators derive their energy from movement
of the tides.
• Obviously requires large bodies of water nearby. Not viable
on the prairies for example.
• Has potential for generation of very large amounts of
electricity, or can be used in smaller scale.
• Tidal power is not a new concept and has been used since at
least the 11th Century in Britain and France for the milling of
grains.
• There are a number of places around the world that have
adopted pilot projects for different types of tidal generators
Origin of Tides
• Tidal power utilizes the twice-daily variation in
sea level caused primarily by the gravitational
effect of the Moon and, to a lesser extent the
Sun on the world's oceans. The Earth's rotation
is also a factor in the production of tides.
• The interaction of the Moon and the Earth
results in the oceans bulging out towards the
Moon (Lunar Tide). The sun’s gravitational field
pulls as well (Solar Tide)
• As the Sun and Moon are not in fixed positions
in the celestial sphere, but change position
with respect to each other, their influence on
the tidal range (difference between low and
high tide) is also effected.
• If the Moon and the Sun are in the same plane
as the Earth, the tidal range is the
superposition of the range due to the lunar
and solar tides. This results in the maximum
tidal range (spring tides). If they are at right
angles to each other, lower tidal differences
are experienced resulting in neap tides.
How do tides changing = Electricity?
• As usual, the electricity is provided by spinning turbines.
• Sluice gates on the barrage allow the tidal basin to fill on the
incoming high tides and to exit through the turbine system on
the outgoing tide (known as the ebb tide).
Western
coastlines at
these latitudes
experience the
most powerful
waves.
Negatives:
• Fish eggs and larvae entrained, destroyed
• Sterilization of land by land based plants
• Floating plants – navigational hazard
• Entrainment and impingement of organisms.
• Chlorine used for preventing biofouling – hazardous
• Metal pieces entrained – affects marine orgs.
• Mixing of warm and cold sea water
• OTEC is yet untested on large scale over a long period of time
Commercial benefits of OTEC
• Helps produce fuels such as hydrogen, ammonia, and
methanol
• Produces baseload electrical energy
• Produces desalinated water for industrial, agricultural, and
residential uses
• Provides air-conditioning for buildings
• Provides moderate-temperature refrigeration
• Has significant potential to provide clean, cost-effective
electricity for the future.
• Specially beneficial for small islands as they can become self-
sufficient
OTEC R&D history in India
Goals:
The objective is to demonstrate the OTEC plant for one year, after
which it could be moved to the Andaman & Nicobar Islands for power
generation. NIOT’s plan is to build 10-25 MW shore-mounted power
plants in due course by scaling-up the 1 MW test plant, and possibly a
100 MW range of commercial plants thereafter.
Fuel Cells
Interest in Fuel Cells
System
Technology Efficiency
Fuel Cell 24-32%
Electric Battery 26%
Gasoline Engine 20%
Types of Fuel Cells
H2 O2
H2O
1 A/cm2 at 0.7 V
OH-
35%
KOH
Advantages:
Low cost electrolyte solution (KOH 30-35%)
Non-noble catalyst withstand basic conditions
O2 kinetics faster in alkaline solution
OH- v. H2O
Alkaline Fuel Cell
Problem Areas and Solutions:
Catalysts
Pt – expensive
Raney Ni – wettability; chemical composition
- Y. Kiros, Pt/Co alloys; similar ability to reduce O 2
- E.D. Geeter et. al testing Ag and Co to replace Pt
Pure gases only
CO32- builds up in electrolyte and clogs pores
CO2 + 2OH- CO32- + H2O
Fe sponges can be inserted to absorb CO2
Circling electrolyte can slow build up of CO32-
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell
H2 O2
H+
H2O
NAFION
• Advantages:
– Nonvolatile membrane
– CO2 rejecting electrolyte
– few material problems
• Problems:
– Slow O2 kinetics
– Hydration of membrane is difficult (30-60%)
• Formed at cathode, but difficult to keep in membrane
• Too little = dehydration and loss of ion transport
• Solutions
- Humidify gases
- Impregnate Nafion with SiO2 or TiO2
Direct Methanol Fuel Cell
N
A
400 mA/cm2 at 0.5V F
at 60oC I
O
N
• Advantages:
– Direct fuel conversion – no reformer needed, all positive aspects of
PEMFC
– CH3OH – natural gas or biomass
– Existing infastructure for transporting petrol can be converted to MeOH
• Problems:
– High catalyst loading (1-3mg/cm2 v. 0.1-0.3 mg/cm2)
– CH3OH hazardous
– Low efficiency (MeOH crossover – lowers potential)
Direct Methanol Membrane Fuel Cell
CH4 or H2 O2
H+
Si matrix
PTFE binding
separator
100% H2 O
H2PO4
• Advantages:
– H2O rejecting electrolyte
– high temps favor H2O2 decomposition
• O2 + H2O +2e- H2O2
• Stable H2O2 lowers cell voltage and corrodes electrode
• Problems:
– O2 kinetic hindered
– CO catalyst poison at anode
– H2 only suitable fuel
– low conducting electrolyte
Molten Carbonate Fuel Carbonate
CO32-
LiAlO3 used to
150 mA/cm2 at
0.8 V at 600oC support
Li2CO3 electrolyte
and
Na2CO3
• Advantages:
– Higher efficiency (v. PEMFC and PAFC) (50-70%)
– Internal reforming (H2 or CH4)
– No noble metal catalyst (High T increases O2 kinetics)
– No negative effects from CO or CO2
• Problems:
– Materials resistant to degradation at high T
• Ni, Fe, Co steel alloys better than SS
– NiO at cathode leeches into CO32- reducing efficiency or crossing
over causing short circuiting
• Dope electrode and electrolyte with Mg
• Kucera and Myles (LiFeO2 or Li2MnO3 stabilize)
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
H2, CxH2x+2 O2
O2- Interconnector
1mA at 0.7V material = Mg
or Sr doped
lanthanum
Y doped chromate
ZrO2
• Advantages:
– Solid electrolyte eliminates leaks
– H2O management, catalyst flooding, slow O2 kinetic are not
problematic
– CO and CO2 are not problematic
– Internal reforming - almost any hydrocarbon or hydrogen
fuel
• Problems:
– Severe material constraints due to high T
• Stainless steal at lower temperatures
• Alloyed metal or Lanthanum Chromite material
Fuel Cell Stacks
•Individual Cell .5-1.0V
•Increase system voltage by
stacking cells
•Cells’voltages are added in
series; current constant over all
cells
•Interconnects act as flow
channels for gases and
connects anode of one cell to
cathode of the next. Must be
gas tight and made from
conducting material.
Applications
• Pure H2 gas
– eliminates reformer
– eliminates risk of catalyst degradation from impure fuel
– space limitations
– explosive
• Liquid H2
– highest energy density of any H2 storage method
– limited by boiling point (-253oC)
• 1-2% evaporation each day
Hydrogen Storage: Metal Hydrides
• S. Shore (1955)
– Ammonia Borane H3NBH3
– Advantages over MH
• Air and Water Stable
• Heat to release H2
• 19% wt. storage of H2
– Developed by Millennium Cell
Hydrogen Storage: Zeolites
• D. Fraenkel (1977)
• Tested by Fritz and Ernst (1995)
– Cs3Na9(AlO2SiO2)12
– Loaded at 2.5-10.0 MPa at 573oC
– 9.2cm3/g
Advantages/Disadvantages of Fuel Cells
• Advantages
– Water is the only discharge (pure H2)
• Disadvantages
– CO2 discharged with methanol reform
– Little more efficient than alternatives
– Technology currently expensive
• Many design issues still in progress
– Hydrogen often created using “dirty” energy (e.g., coal)
– Pure hydrogen is difficult to handle
• Refilling stations, storage tanks, …
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