Popular

Methodology
MARICRIS A. CAGUD

YSSA VIENNE J. SAMILLANO

OBJECTIVES:
• define approach, method, procedure and
technique;
• define the different approaches,
methods, procedures, and techniques in
teaching English as a Second Language;
and
• making a choice on what methodology
to use.
Terms:
• APPROACH
- refers to theories about the nature of language and
language learning that serve as the source of practices
and principles in language teaching (Richards and
Rodgers, 1986)
- describes how language is used and how its
constituent parts interlock.
-describes how people acquire their knowledge of the
language and makes statements about the conditions
which will promote successful language learning
APPROACH
- A set of principles, beliefs or ideas about the nature of
learning, which is translated into the classroom.
- A teacher’s personal philosophy of teaching.
TEACHING APPROACHES IN THE K-12 CURRICULUM

1. Learners-centered
` 2. Inclusive
3. Developmentally Appropriate Approach
4. Responsive and Relevant
5. Culture-Sensitive
6. Contextualized and Global
APPROACH
- A set of principles, beliefs or ideas about the nature of
learning, which is translated into the classroom.
- A teacher’s personal philosophy of teaching.
TEACHING APPROACHES IN THE K-12 CURRICULUM
7. Research- Based
8. Constructivist
9. Inquiry-Based
10. Reflective Teaching
11. Collaborative Approach
12. Integrative
13. Mother-Tongue-Based MLE
14. Spiral Progression
Terms:
• METHOD
- is the practical realization of an
approach;
- it includes various procedures and
techniques as part of their standard
fare.
- a set of orderly, logically- arranged
steps in teaching
- more Procedural
Terms:
METHOD are the combination of techniques , that
are used and plasticized by the teachers in the
classroom in order to teach their students. It
includes discussion about particular skills to be
taught and focuses on:
 the roles of the teacher and the learner in
language and learning
The appropriate procedures and
techniques
The content to be taught
The order in which the content will be
presented.
A Method means the systematic way of doing
something.
It implies an orderly, logical arrangements of
steps
It is a plan that you follow, when you are
teaching, by applying a certain approach you
come up with procedures, and practices for
teaching your students
Teaching methods commonly used in the classroom
 Inductive-Deductive
 Direct method – indirect method
 Lecture method (traditional)
 Discussion
 Reporting
 Demonstration
 Self-pacing
 Investigatory
 Integrated
Terms:
PROCEDURE
- is an ordered sequence of
techniques.
- it can be described in terms such as
first you do this, then you do that…..
-smaller than a method but bigger
than a technique.
Terms:
TECHNIQUE
- is a classroom device or activity and
it is more specific than method
- A procedure for achieving
something; may be specific to an art
form such as music or dance.
TEACHING TECHNIQUE
A teacher’s personal style or trick to accomplish
the task of teaching.
Tricks that can be taught to another teacher
 The teacher’s tricks that works inside the
classroom for example, how do you check in the
attendance, do you do roll call or you just use set
plan.
Terms:
• Model
- used to describe typical procedures
or sets of procedures, usually for
teachers in training.
- A procedure for achieving
something; may be specific to an art
form such as music or dance.
AUDIO-
LINGUALISM
AUDIO-LINGUALISM
- This approach was developed right after the end of World War 2 by
Charles Fries who lead the way in applying principles from structural
linguistics.
- In 1947, principles from behavioral psychology (Skinner) were
applied.
- This method is based on the principle that language learning is habit
formation, the method fosters dependence on memorization of set of
phrases.
- Structures are sequenced and taught at one time. Structural patterns
are taught using repetitive drills.
AUDIO-LINGUALISM
- the mother tongue is not used inside the class as the focus is on the target
language.
- This method is also known as the new key or army method: originate during the
World War II
- This help learners acquire accurate pronunciation, it demands sufficient knowledge
of vocabulary to learn grammar patterns, no explicit grammatical instructions are
given but is target inductively. The learners develop the ability to respond quickly
and accurately in speech situations.
AUDIO-LINGUALISM
- Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis between L1
and L2.
- Use of mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged
among and by the students.
- Successful responses are reinforced; great care is taken to prevent
learner errors.
- Drill materials should always be meaningful. If the content words are
not known, teach their meanings.
- Don’t stand in one place; move around the room standing next to as
many students as possible to check their production. Thus you will
Reinforcement is a vital element in the learning
process, because it increases the likelihood that
the behavior will occur again and become a
habit.
Reinforcement
Respon
Stimul Organis
se No Reinforcement
us m
Behavi Negative
or Reinforcement
CHARACTERISTICS OF AUDIO-LIGUAL
METHOD:

Based on the principle of “habit-formation”

through repetition and drill
“Ear training” in order to develop speaking
proficiency.
Focus on listening and speaking skills
Memorization of set phrases and sentences
while focusing on information and correct
Repetition
 the students repeats an utterance aloud as soon as he has heard it.
He does this without looking at printed text. The utterance must be
brief enough to be retained by the ear. Sound is as important as form
and order.
Teacher: I used to know him.
Students: I used to know him.
Teacher: I used to know him years ago.
Students: I used to know him years ago.
INFLECTION
 one word in an utterance appears in another form when
repeated.
Teacher: I bought the ticket.
Students: I bought the ticket.
Teacher: He bought the candy.
Students: she bought the candy.
Teacher: I called the young man.
Students: I called the young men.
Replacement
 one word in an utterance is replaced by another.

Teacher: he bought this house cheap.

Students: He bought it cheap.
Teacher: helen left early.
Students: she left early.
Teacher: they gave their boss a watch.
Students: They gave him a watch.
RESTATEMENT
 the student rephrases an utterance and addresses it to someone else,
according to instructions.
Teacher: tell him to wait for you.
Students: wait for me.
Teacher: ask her how old she is.
Students: how old are you?
Teacher: ask john when he began.
Students: john, when did you began?
COMPLETION
 the student hears an utterance that is complete except for one word, then
repeats the utterance in completed form.

Teacher: I’ll go my way and you go

Students: I’ll go my way and you go yours.
Teacher: we all have ….. Own troubles.
Students: we all have our own troubles.
TRANSPOSITION
 a change in word order is necessary when a word is
added.

Teacher: I’m hungry. (SO)

Students: so am I.
Teacher: I’ll never do it again. (NEITHER)
Students: neither will I.
Expansion
 When a word is added, it takes a certain place in the
sequence.

Teacher: I know him. (HARDLY)

Students: I hardly know him.
Teacher: I know him. (WELL)
Students: I know him well.
Contractions
 A single word stands for a phrase or clause.

Teacher: Put your hand on the table.

Students: Put your hand there.
Teacher: They believe that the earth is flat. (WELL)
Students: They believe it…..
Transformation
 A sentence is transformed by being made negative or
interrogative or through changes in tense , moid, voice,
aspect, or modality.
He knows my address.
He doesn’t know my address.
Does he know my address?
He used to know my address.
If he had known my address.
INTEGRATION
 two separate utterance are integrated into one.

Teacher: They must be honest. This is important.

Students: it is important that they be honest.
Teacher: I know that man. He is looking for you.
Students: I know the man who is looking for you.
RESTORATION
 the student is given a sequence of words that have been culled
from a sentence but still bear its basic meaning. He uses these words
with a minimum of changes and additions to restore the sentence to
its original form. He may be told whether the time is present, past,
or future.
teacher: students/ waiting/ bus
student: The students are waiting for the bus.
be Polite.
Teacher: Thank you.
Students: you're welcome.
Answer the question
Teacher: What is your name?
Students: My name is smith.
Agree
Teacher: He’s following us.
Students: I think you’re right.
What does it say about language learning?
- Based in Structural Linguistics, parts of
language can be broken down and follow
structural pattern.
- Focuses on speaking, as historically,
speaking came before writing in language.
- Language is habit formation.
- Need to learn culture as well in order to
sound more like a native speaker.
The roles of the ……
teachers students

Orchestra Leader Imitators

Presentation,
Practice, and
Production (PPP)
Presentation, practice and
production (PPP)
- According to this approach, Grammatical structures and
functions are the most important aspect of language.
- Language is learnt by first seeing new language in context
which shows its meaning, practicing it in controlled and
guided conditions, then using it in freer conditions whish
gave the learner less language support.
- Lessons move from presentation stage to practice stage
Presentation, practice and
production (PPP)
- Learners should not be allowed to make mistakes during the
practice stage.
- The teacher input language (provides examples and gives
information about it) and guides students.
- Learners are guided by the teacher and do not make decisions
about what or how to learn.
- Typical activities are situational presentations and miming at
the presentation stage, drills at controlled practice stage, role
PRESENT- Introduce the material and explain it. Present through
demonstration or modeling
PRACTICE- Give students opportunities to apply new language with
guidance and support. Students practice smaller parts or segments of
the new material and progressively include more.
PRODUCE- encourage students to demonstrate use of the new
language in context through activities or projects they complete with
minimal teacher assistance.
Sample:

Teacher introduces vocabulary, sentence structure or conversation

script.

Students practice identifying and using language

Students use language they have learned to engaged in an activity.

 Presentation
- The teacher shows the students the following picture
and asks them whether the people in it are at work or
on holiday to elicit the fact that they are on holiday.
 Presentation phase or stage
- The goal is to present comprehensible input not
gain comprehension.
- It is used to introduced new target language.
-Teacher can use:
 PowerPoint presentation
Drills
Videos
Flashcards
Direct Questions
 Practice
- This approach is also called “Over
Done” which is based on the student’s
performance. In the way that students
develop all the concepts related. All the
practice activities should be focused on
promoting the student’s motivation in
the content area.
 Practice
- The teacher gets the students to repeat the
sentence “He’s swimming” in chorus. She may
then nominate certain students to repeat the
sentence individually, and she corrects any
mistakes she hears.
- Now she goes back and models more sentences
from the picture (Mary’s reading a book, Paul
and Sarah are playing cards, etc.), getting choral
and individual repetition where she thinks this is
necessary.
Now she’s in a position to conduct a
slightly freer kind of drill than the Audi-
Lingual one above.
Teacher: Can anyone tell me? …Mary?.... Yes,
Sergio?
Students: She’s reading a book.
Teacher: good.
 Practice phase or stage
- Give clear feedback.
- Time to assess.
- Gives controlled practice through
controlled activities.
- Teachers can use:
 Chorale Response (worksheets)
 Direct questions (question and answer)
 Production
- Some trainers have called “Immediate
Creativity”.
- The students are asked to use the new
language (in this case the present
continuous) in sentences of their own.
 Production
- It focuses on fluency and provides students
with an opportunity to personalize the
language through less controlled tasks.
- The students interact by doing
communicative tasks.
 Production phase or stage
- Situational Role-Plays
-Problem Solving
-Discussions
-Debate
Teachers can use:
•Creating role plays
•Group and Pair Work
•Presentation
Alternatives to
PPP
 Michael Lewis suggested that PPP was
inadequate because it reflected neither
the nature of language nor the nature
of learning (Lewis 1993;190)
 One trainer, Jim Scrivener, even wrote
that it is fundamentally disabling, not
enabling. (Scrivener 1994a; 15)
 Later however, Scrivener advanced
what is perhaps the most worrying
aspect of PPP, the fact that it:
only describes one kind of lesson; it is
inadequate as a general proposal
concerning approaches to language in
the classroom. It entirely fails to
describe many ways in which teachers
can work when, for example, using
 However more recent
models, usually designed
for training purposes, have
gone further than this:
 ARC
- put forward by Jim Scrivener (1994b), this
stands for Authentic Use, Restricted Use,
and Clarification and focus.
- The basic premise here is that most
language in the classroom can be described
 ARC
- Thus a communicative activity will
demonstrate “authentic use”, whereas a drill,
jazz chant, elicited dialogue, or guided writing,
for example, will provoke restricted use of
language by students. Finally, Clarification
language is that which the teacher and students
use to explain grammar, give examples, analyze
errors, elicit, or repeat things.
 OHE/III
OBSERVE- HYPHOTHESIZE- EXPIREMENT
- Michael Lewis claims that students
should be allowed to Observe (read or
listen to language) which will then
provoke them to Hypothesize about
how the language works before going
on to Experiment on the bases of that
 OHE/III
OBSERVE- teacher demonstrate
HYPHOTHESIZE- control the activity
EXPIREMENT - produce and used what they have
learned
 OHE/III
- Such a description is close to the III of Mc Carthy and
Carter (Mc Carthy and Carter 1995) where they
show students examples of language like the
transcripts of conversations (Illustration); they
then give them discovery activities and questions
about the language-for example How would you
rewrite this spoken language formally?
(Interaction) as a result of which, through such a
noticing routine, students will grasp new facts
about language (Induction).
 ESA
- three components will usually be
present in any teaching sequence,
whether of five, fifty or hundred
minutes.
 ESA
• Engage - unless students are engaged, emotionally,
with what is going on, their learning will be less
effective.
• Study – describes any teaching and learning element
where the focus is on how something is constructed,
whether it is relative clauses, specific intonation
patterns, the construction of paragraph or text, the way
a lexical phrase is made and used, or the collocation
possibilities of a particular word.
• Activate – students are encouraged to use all and/or
any of the language they know.
COMMUNICATI
VE APPROACH
COMMUNICATIVE
APPROACH
- or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
is the name which was given to a set of beliefs
which included not only a re-examination of
what aspects of language to teach, but also a
shift in emphasis in how to teach.
COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
-Provides theory of how language are best learned and make
suggestions based on this theory on how language should be taught and
which activities work best.
- For effective communication we need to know both language itself
and how to use it.
COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
- says learners need language knowledge and knowledge of how to use
the language to achieve communication competence.
- communicative approach provides meaningful communication
through direct practice in speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills
COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
example;

Write a sentence using a superlative adjective

Tell your partner about the most interesting person you know.
• “what to teach”
- it stressed significance of language functions
rather than focusing solely on grammar and
• “how to teach”
vocabulary.
- is closely related to the idea that ‘language
learning will take care of itself’, and that
plentiful exposure to language in use and
plenty of opportunities to use it are vitally
important for a students development of
knowledge and skill.
TASK-BASED
LEARNING
TBL
- greatly popularized by N. Prabhu who,
working with schools in Bangalore, Southern
India, speculated that students were just as
likely to learn language if they were thinking
about a non-linguistic problem as when they
were concentrating on particular language
forms.
- TBL implies a shift away from some
traditional teacher roles. We cannot
always be acting as a controller if we
want students to manipulate, comprehend,
and interact with a task,
- Critics of TBL have worried about its
applicability to lower learning levels-
though in fact there are many tasks that
are suitable for beginners and/or younger
learners.
Four methods
- It developed in the 1970s and 1980s, have had a
considerable impact upon language teaching even if
they are rarely used exclusively in ‘mainstream’
teaching.
Community
language learning
CLL
- is the name of a method developed by
Charles A. Curran and his associates.
- it derives its primary insights, and indeed its
organizing rationale, from Rogerian counseling
(Rogers 1951).
- In lay terms, counseling is one person giving
advice, assistance, and support to another who
has a problem or is in some way in need.
CLL
- It draws on the counseling metaphor to
redefine the roles of the teacher (the counselor)
and learners (the clients) in the language
classroom. The basic procedures of Cll can
thus be seen as derived from the counselor-
client relationship.
CLL
- is a language-teaching method in which students
work together to develop what aspects of a language
they would like to learn.
-emphasizes the sense of community in the learning
group, encourages interaction as a vehicle of learning,
and considers as a priority the students' feelings and the
recognition of struggles in language acquisition.
The silent way
The Silent Way
- is the name of a method developed by Charles A.
Curran and his associates.
- it derives its primary insights, and indeed its
organizing rationale, from Rogerian counseling
(Rogers 1951).
- In lay terms, counseling is one person giving advice,
assistance, and support to another who has a problem
or is in some way in need.
- learners interact with physical objects too, especially
Cuisenaire rods. There is a problem-solving involved
too, since students have to resolve language
The Silent Way Procedure
- a teacher models sounds while printing a phonemic chart-
or to an arrangement of Cuisenaire rods. A student imitates
the teacher and the teacher indicates (silently) if he or she is
correct. If not, another student is prompted to help the first
student. A third or fourth student is prompted if necessary
until a correct version of the phonemes is produced. The
class continues with the teacher pointing to different
phonemes while the students work out what they are and
how they combine them. Later, students can point to
elements in the Cuisenaire rods in such a way that they have
provided a stimulus for the language in the same way as the
teacher did. They and their colleagues have to work out what
the correct language is.
Suggestopae
dia
Suggestopaedia
- is developed by Georgi Lozanov.
- it sees the surroundings and atmosphere of the classroom as of
vital importance. By ensuring that the students are comfortable,
confident and relaxed, the affective filter is lowered, thus
enhancing learning.

• Infantillisation – a feature of suggestopaedia that is when the

teacher and students exist in a paren-children relationship
where, to remove barriers to learning, students are given
different names from their outside real ones. Traumatic themes
are avoided, and the sympathy with which the teacher treats the
students is vitally important.
 Suggestopaedic
Oral lesson
séanc
Revie Presentation and e or
w discussion of conce
new dialogue rt
material sessio
n
Total physical
response
Total physical response
- is originated by James Asher.
- worked from the premise that adult second language
learning could have similar developmental patterns to
that of child language acquisition.
-it asks students to respond physically to the language
they hear.
-Language processing is then matched with physical
Critics of TPR
- this kind of teaching may only be appropriate for beginner
learners.
- questions how TPR ties in with any real-world needs.
- in TPR, students do not have to give instructions themselves
until they are ready.
- in responding to commands, students get a lot of
comprehensible input.
- in performing physical actions, they seem to echo the claims
of Neuro-linguistic programming that certain people benefit
Humanistic teaching
Humanistic teaching
- students are encouraged to make use of their own
lives and feelings in the classroom.
- students might be asked to make sentences with was
and were about their favorite things, for example ‘When
I was a child, my favorite food was hamburgers’ or
‘When I was a child my favorite relative was my uncle’.
Humanistic teaching
• ‘Choosing the passive’ Activity……
Lexical
approach
Lexical approach
- discussed by Dave Willis (Willis 1990) and
popularized by the writer Michael Lewis (1993, 1997)
- is based on the assertion that ‘language consists not of
traditional grammar and vocabulary but often of multi-
word prefabricated chunks’ (Lewis 1997).
Lexical approach
- vocabulary is the most important aspect of language.
Vocabulary consists of individual words and different
kinds of chunks such as collocations, idioms, and fixed
expressions.
-Language is learned by learning chunks as whole and
complete units. Chunks need to be noticed by learners
in order to be learnt.
Lexical approach
- Learners work with authentic written or spoken texts
in the classroom.
-Learners are given activities which encourage them to
notice chunks in texts. (note them down and underline
them)
-After noticing chunks, learners are asked to carry out
tasks which will involve them in using the chunks.
Rearrange these to make a fixed expression with
the verb (GET)
1. Things much can’t worse get.
2. What we to there are supposed time get?
3. I you the very weren’t happy impression got.
4. We’ve we as as the for can far moment got.
5. We be to don’t anywhere seem getting.
6. What you I can get?

Which of these suggests:

Flying Offering a drink Frustration Despair
Problems encountered in
Lexical approach
- learning the system is vital pre-requisite of the ability
to sting phrases together into a coherent whole.
-we might order such phrases for teaching and learning
purposes or, if we believe that exposure to enough
suitable input is the key, what kind of input that should
be.
-in what way an LA differs from other accounts of
language teaching since there are as yet no sets of
procedures to exemplify an approach to language
learning.
What methodology?
Methods and
culture
S4: The price …
S3: A little costly … S3- Japanese Male
T2: (helping out) Too expensive.
S3: No… not… a little costly? student
T2: Ok, so you won’t choose that because it is too expensive…
S4- Malaysian
S3: I think it is costly.
T2: Yeah, In English we say too expensive. female Student
S3: I can’t say costly?
T2-Teacher
T2: Well… (long pause). Costly is OK, yeah, but more often…
probably we say expensive…
S3: Ok, you are my teacher…(laughs)
T2: No, you don’t have to agree with me…
S3: I don’t have to…?
From B Kumaravadivelu (1991: 107)
Greg Ellis
“when communicative teachers who have a
facilitative view of the teacher’s role in
communicative activities try and impose
this view of the teacher-student
relationship in cultures where students
expect the teacher to behave in a more
Alistair Pennycook
“We need to see English language teaching
as located in the domain of popular culture
as much as in the domain of applied
linguistics”
DILYS Thorp
“It’s far too easy to think that our own
ideas, as to what constitutes ‘good’
learning are universal, and forget their
cultural specificity.”
DILYS Thorp
“in listening, where they needed the skill of listening for gist
and not every word, and where they wanted to listen time and
time again, we gradually weaned them away from this by
initially allowing them to listen as often as they liked; but in
return- and this was their part of the bargain,- they were to
concentrate on the gist and answer guided questions. These
guided questions moved them away from a sentence analysis
towards inferential interpretation of the text. Then, we
gradually reduced the number of times they were allowed to
listen. This seemed to work: it was a system with which they
were happy, and which enabled them to see real
improvements in their listening skills.”
MAKING
CHOICES
Exposure to language:
- students need constant exposure to
language since this is a key component of
language acquisition.
Input:
- students need comprehensible input but
this is not enough in itself, unless there is
some language study or some opportunity
for noticing or conscious-raising to help
students remember language facts.
CLT:
- communicative activities and task-based
teaching offer real learning benefits, though
neither tasks nor communicative activities
on their own are sufficient for a whole
language programme.
The affective variable:
- anxiety needs to be lowered for learning to
take place.
Discovery:
- where culturally appropriate, students
should be encouraged to discover things for
themselves, as this is likely to lead to better
retention in the long run.
Grammar and lexis:
- lexis is as important as grammar. Showing
how words combine together and behave
both semantically and grammatically is an
important part of any language learning
programme.
Methodology and culture:
- teaching methodology is rooted in popular
culture. Assumptions that methodologists
and teachers make are not necessarily shared
by students from different traditions.
Compromise may be necessary.
 What really matters for teachers who
wish to grow and develop as they teach
(And for the students whom they work
with) is that practices should be
constantly scrutinized to see if they are
working and why or why not.