DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

INFORMATION STRUCTURE

and

GENERIC STRUCTURE
COHESION
Cohesive Structural
• Reference Thematic (Theme – Rheme)
• Substitution and ellipsis
Information (Given – New)
• Conjunction
Genre
• Lexical cohesion
Thematic structure

The initial element in a clause Everything that follows the theme

The first identifies what the The second says something new about
clause is about the theme
Speaker-oriented: What I am Listener-oriented: what I am asking
starting from you to attend to
Theme
• The cat ate the rat.
• The rat was eaten by the cat.

The same information is presented

the sentences are thematically different.

Topical themes
Present the topic/information conveyed in the discourse
Theme

• Frankly, the movie was a waste of money.

Interpersonal theme
Reveal something of the attitude of the speaker or reader
Theme

• However, you should see it and make up your mind.

Textual theme
Link a clause to the rest of the discourse
Theme
1 2 3

Present the Reveal Link a clause

topic something of to the rest of
conveyed in the attitude the discourse
the discourse of the
Subject speaker or
reader

Topical Interpersonal Textual

Theme
Study sentence (A)
A. The victorious footballers stepped off the plane.
Which one should follow it?
B. Cheering fans immediately swamped them.
C. They were immediately swamped by cheering fans.
D. They were immediately buffeted by the wind.
E. The wind immediately buffeted them.
F. All the journalists were immediately smiled at by them.
G. They immediately smiled at all the journalists.

Brown and Yule, as cited in Nunan, 1993, p. 48

 Rheme
Clause 1 Clause 2
He picked up the gun. The gun was loaded.
Theme 1 Rheme 1 Theme 2 Rheme 2

Theme 1 Rheme 1

Theme 2 Rheme 2

McCarthy, as cited in Flowerdew, 2013, p. 81

 Rheme
Clause 1 Clause 2
I am a teacher. I teach live in Hanoi.
Theme 1 Rheme 1 Theme 2 Rheme 2

Theme 1 Rheme 1

Theme 2 Rheme 2

McCarthy, as cited in Flowerdew, 2013, p. 81

 Rheme
There are two methods you can use to feed your puppy: free feeding and scheduled
feeding. Free feeding is when dry food is left out all day and the dog eats as it wishes.
Scheduled feeding give the dog food at set times of the day, and then takes it away after a
period of time, such as a half hour.
Theme 1 Rheme 1a: free feeding Rheme 1b: scheduled feeding

Theme 1 Rheme 1

Theme 2 Rheme 2 Theme 3 Rheme 3

McCarthy, as cited in Flowerdew, 2013, p. 81

Given and New information

The information has already been The information is introduced

introduced into the discourse. for the first time into the
The information is assumed to be discourse
known to the reader/listener
 Given information New information
• From context: • As a rough rule of thumb, the new
• (looking at spilled food): What a mess! information in a sentence or utterance in
English generally comes LAST.
• This letter here is addressed to Sue.
In the statement: The cat ate the rat.
• From foregoing text:
 the assumed knowledge is that the cat
• I’m in the country with my friend
ate something and the new information is
Thanh. that it was a rat that got eaten.
• She lives in a beautiful house.
• There’s a flower garden in front of the (Nunan, 1993: 45)
house.
(English 6: 73)
NOTE

Themes tend to be Given

Rhemes tend to be New
What is GIVEN? What is NEW?
• I had one of those nice old tropical houses.
• I was very lucky.
• it was about thirty years old,
• on stone pillars
• with a long staircase up
• and folding doors
• back to the verandah.
GENERIC STRUCTURE

Main reading: Nunan (1993: 49-54)

Additional reading: Flowerdew (2013: 150-153); Gee (2013)

Genre and generic structure of discourse
Different types of communicative events result in different types of
discourse.
Each genre has its own distinctive characteristics
• a specific purpose
• a particular overall structure / generic structure
• specific linguistic features
Schematic structures of key elemental genres (Lock & Lockhart, 1998, re-cited in
Flowerdew, 2013: 152)
Genre Stages Purpose
Recount Orientation ^ Provides information about a situation
Record of events ^ Presents events in temporal sequence
(Reorientation) Brings events into the present

Procedure Goal ^ Gives information about the purposes of the talks – in title or intro
Steps 1-n ^ Lists activities needed to achieve the goal in correct sequence
(Results) Presents final state or ‘look’ at the activity

Narrative Orientation ^ Gives information about characters’ situation

Complication Presents one or more problems for characters to solve
(Evaluation) ^ Evaluates the major events for the characters
Resolution Sorts out the problems for the characters

Description Identification ^ Defines, classifies, or generalises about a phenomenon

Aspect n Describes attributes of each category of the phenomenon
(Conclusion) Sums up the description

Report Problem ^ Identifies a problem

Reason n ^ Gives possible reasons for or consequences of the problem
(Conclusion) ^ Makes suggestions for solving the problem
Recommendations Presents measures to be adopted as a result of the report
Map of genres in school (Martin and Rose, 2012: 110, cited in Flowerdew 2013:
152)
Common
education
al genres
(Gee, 2013)
Generic structure of discourse: Example 1
• Purpose: To entertain / to tell what happened/ to inform
• Organization:
• Orientation (tells who, where, when)
• Series of events
• Problem
• Resolution
• Language features
• Past tense
• Action verbs
• Describing words
• Time expressions/ Time connectives
• Dialogues and reporting verbs that explain how people speak
Generic structure of discourse: Example 1
Once upon a time there was a boy named Jack, who lived with his
mother in a small village. They were very poor and their only
possession was a cow, which gave them milk, and an old axe, which
hung on the wall of their house.
 orientation: sets the scene, gives details of who, when, where.
Generic structure of discourse: Example 1
• One day his mother said to Jack, “we are so poor that we must sell the cow. You must take it
to market and sell it to buy food”.
• So Jack took the cow and set off to market. On his way there he met an old man who offered
to exchange Jack’s cow for some beans. Jack said, “My mother will be very angry with me if I
don’t take back money. We need to buy food.”
• “Don’t worry, replied the old man. “These are no ordinary beans. They are magic beans, and
they will bring you good luck!”
• Jack felt sorry for the old man, because he looked even poorer than Jack, and so he agreed to
exchange the cow for the magic beans.
• “you are a kind boy,” said the old man, “and you will be well rewarded.”
• When he got home and told his mother what he had done, she was very angry….
Generic structure of discourse: Example 1
• “You stupid boy,” she shouted. “You have sold our most valuable possession for a handful of
beans.” And she threw the beans out of the window.
• The next day, when Jack woke up, there, in the garden, where is mother had thrown the
beans, was a huge beanstalk. It was as thick as a tree so tall it seemed to go right up into the
sky. Jack stared and stared at the beanstalk, and remembered the old man’s words. Taking his
axe, he began to climb up the beanstalk. Up and up he climbed. For many hours he kept
climbing until, at last, he could see the top of the beanstalk. Right at the top of the beanstalk
was a huge, ugly giant. And in front of him hay a heap of treasure. There were gold and silver
coins, and piles of precious jewels. Very quietly, so as not to wake the giant, Jack started to
fill his coat pockets with the giant’s treasure.
 Events: relates a number of events in sequence.
Generic structure of discourse: Example 1
• Just as Jack had taken all he could carry, the giant opened one eye and saw
Jack. “Who are you?” he roared. He opened the other eye, and then he
stood up. Jack could hardly see his head it was so far away. He turned and
ran and started to climb down the beanstalk as fast as he could. The giant
strode after him, and Jack felt sure he was about to die!
 Complication: states the problem.
Generic structure of discourse: Example 1
• But as the giant was about to reach down and grab Jack. Jack
remembered the axe. He swung it backwards and then, as hard as he
could, he chopped into the beanstalk just above his head. Again and
again he chopped until, at last, the top of the beanstalk crashed down
out of the sky, carrying the giant with it. With a loud roar he
disappeared and fell to earth. And Jack climbed safely down the
beanstalk carrying jewels to look after his mother and himself for the
rest of his life.
 Resolution: relates how the problem is solved.
Generic structure of discourse: Example 2
• Chicken soup
1 1/4 cups chicken broth
10 (6 inch) corn tortillas, cut into 1/2 inch strips
1 cup green enchilada sauce
1 (10 ounce) can red enchilada sauce
1 teaspoon ground cumin
4 cooked, boneless and skinless chicken breast
halve
1 cup half-and-half
1 tomato, chopped
1 jalapeno pepper, seeded and minced
1 cup shredded Cheddar cheese
Combine chicken stock and tortilla
strips in a large pot. Cook over
medium heat until strips soften and
broth thickens somewhat. Stir in
enchilada sauces and cumin. Stir in
chicken and half-and-half; heat
through. Divide among four bowls
and garnish with diced tomato,
jalapeno pepper, and cheese. Serve
with tortilla chips.
 Generic structure
• Title
• List of ingredients
• Procedure
Generic structure of discourse: Example 3
• What did you do last night?
• Well, Mum and Dad went out so we went to Marg’s to sleep, and
Sarah wouldn’t go to sleep, and she wanted to ring Mum, and Marg
said she couldn’t, and so she cried, and so Marg combed her hair, and
then she went to sleep. She was really naughty…
• What time did she go to sleep?
• Mmm – ‘bout one o’clock.
Generic structure of discourse: Example 3
Recount:
• Introduction: Well, Mum and Dad went out
• Orientation: so we went to Marg’s to sleep
• Event: and Sarah wouldn’t go to sleep,
• Event: and she wanted to ring Mum,
• Event: and Marg said she couldn’t,
• Event: and so she cried,
• Event: and so Marg combed her hair,
• Event: and then she went to sleep.
• Comment: She was really naughty.
Rhetorical patterns
• Hoey (1983) argues that the ordering of information in discourse can
reflect certain rhetorical relationships:
• Cause - effect
• Problem – solution
Example: I was on sentry duty.
• CAUSE  I saw the enemy approaching.  CONSEQUENCE  I
opened fire.
• INSTRUMENT  I opened fire.  ACHIEVEMENT  I beat off the
attack.
Group work: discourse analysis
• Select a written text or text extract. This may be either a fictional or factual text
from the textbooks, English 6-9. Analyze the text according to the following:
• Cohesion
• Information structure
• Overall patterns or generic structure

• Select a specific genre. Analyze the its distinctive characteristics in terms of:
• its specific purpose
• its particular overall structure
• its specific linguistic features
• Give an example as an illustration. The example may be a dialogue or a reading
text from the textbooks, English 6-9.