How Cells

Release Energy
 Pyruvate is Oxidized to Acetyl CoA
• After glycolysis,
pyruvate moves into
the mitochondrial
matrix, where
preliminary
“transition step”
further oxidizes each
pyruvate molecule.
• First, a molecule of is
removed, and is reduced to
NADH. The remaining two
carbon molecule, called an
acetyl group, is transferred to
a molecule called coenzyme A
to form acetyl coenzyme A
(acetyl CoA). Acetyl CoA is
the compound that enters the
Krebs cycle.
 The Krebs Cycle Produces
ATP and Electron Carriers
• Krebs cycle (also known as citric acid cycle), occurs in
mitochondrial matrix, is a series of reactions that oxidized
acetyl CoA to , produces ATP, NADH, and .
Step 1. The first step is a condensation step, combining the two-carbon
acetyl group (from acetyl CoA) with a four-carbon oxaloacetate
molecule to form a six-carbon molecule of citrate.
Step 2. Citrate loses one water molecule and gains another as citrate is
converted into its isomer, isocitrate.
Steps 3 and 4. In step three, isocitrate is oxidized, producing a five-
carbon molecule, α-ketoglutarate, together with a molecule of CO2 and
two electrons, which reduce NAD+ to NADH. α-Ketoglutarate is the
product of step three, and a succinyl group is the product of step four.
CoA binds the succinyl group to form succinyl CoA.
Step 5. A phosphate group is substituted for coenzyme A, and a high-
energy bond is formed. This energy is used in substrate-level to form
either guanine triphosphate (GTP) or ATP. In this step produces also
the succinate.
Step 6. Dehydration process that converts succinate into fumarate. Two
hydrogen atoms are transferred to FAD, producing FADH2. The energy
contained in the electrons of these atoms is insufficient to reduce
NAD+ but adequate to reduce FAD.
Step 7. Water is added to fumarate during step seven, and malate is
produced. The last step in the citric acid cycle regenerates oxaloacetate
by oxidizing malate. Another molecule of NADH is produced.
 The Electron Transport Chain
Drives ATP Formation
• The products generated so far are
, ATP, NADH, and . The cell
ejects the as waste and uses ATP
to fuel essential processes. The
NADH and transfer their cargo
to an electron transport chain in
the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
• The NADH (electron carrier) delivers electrons in Complex I and becomes
NAD+. As the electrons move to the complex, the energy gradually
released and this energy is used to pump hydrogen ions across the
mitochondrial inner membrane from the matrix into the intermembrane
space.
• The electrons are then transported by a transport protein called coenzyme
Q and pass by in Complex II to get the electrons donated by (will become
FAD+). All of the electrons collected by the transport protein will be
transferred in Complex III.
• The energy of the electrons that transferred in Complex III will be used to
pump hydrogen ions across the mitochondrial inner membrane from the
matrix into the intermembrane space.
• To proceed, the electrons in Complex III will be get by another transport
protein called cytochrome C and transferred it in Complex IV and the
energy of the electrons will be used to pump hydrogen ions across the
mitochondrial inner membrane from the matrix into the intermembrane
space.
• Complex IV is the final destination of the electrons, wherein these
electrons will bind to an oxygen gas and hydrogen ions in the matrix to
form water.
• Notice that there is a build up of high concentrated hydrogen ions in the
intermembrane space.
• The high concentrated hydrogen ions in the intermembrane
space will be use to produce ATP by the protein called ATP
synthase. This hydrogen ions will flow through the ATP
synthase from high concentration to low concentration and
generate ATP from ADP.
 How many ATPs Can One
Glucose Molecule Yield?

• To estimate the yields of ATP produced from every glucose

molecule that enters aerobic respiration, we can add the
maximum number of ATPs generated – directly and indirectly –
in glycolysis, the transition step, the Krebs cycle, and the ETC.
 Process ATP ATP produced Used
Glycolysis 4 ATP - 2 ATP

Oxidation of pyruvic acid - 2 ATP

Krebs cycle 2 ATP

Electron transport chain 6 ATP

From 2 NADH generated via oxidation of pyruvic acid 6 ATP

From 6 NADH generated via the Krebs cycle 18 ATP

From 2 generated via the Krebs cycle 4 ATP

Total 40 ATP - 4 ATP

Net gain ATP 36 ATP