MODULE – 3

MODULE – 3
HYDROGEN ENERGY
Hydrogen is the simplest element and an atom of hydrogen
consists of one proton and one electron. It is available in
abundance. It does not occur naturally as a gas on the earth, it is
always combined with other elements. For ex. Water H 2O, is a
combination of hydrogen and oxygen. It is also available in
hydrocarbons used as fuels. Hydrogen can be separated from
hydrocarbons through the application of heat – a process is known
as reforming. Another method of hydrogen production is known as
electrolysis of water, in this process, a direct electrical current
passes through water to separate water into its components of
oxygen and hydrogen. Some algae and bacteria give off hydrogen
under certain conditions using sunlight.
 Hydrogen energy is usable form next to electrical
energy in future, if technology for hydrogen
transportation, distribution, and utilization is fully
established and accepted by human society.

Hydrogen is a clean burning fuel, it can be produced

at large scale at lower cost. It can be readily converted
into electricity. It can be used as a industrial raw material
for ammonia synthesis, petroleum reforming, fat
hardening and it can be used in other chemical industries.
 Benefits of Hydrogen Energy
The different benefits of hydrogen energy are,
1. Use of hydrogen greatly reduces pollution:

When hydrogen is combined with oxygen in a fuel

cell, energy in the form of electricity is produced. This
electricity can be used to power vehicle, as a heat
source and for many other applications. When
hydrogen combines with oxygen, the only by-products
are water and heat. No greenhouse gases are produced.
2. Hydrogen can be produced locally from numerous
sources
It can be produced centrally and then distributed or
on sight where it will be used. Hydrogen gas can be
produced from methane, gasoline, biomass, coal,
water etc.
3. A sustainable production system
Electrolysis is the method of separating water into
hydrogen and oxygen. Renewable energy can be used
to power electrolysers to produce hydrogen from
water. Using renewable energy provides a sustainable
system that is independent of petroleum products and
is non polluting. Hydrogen can be used
in a fuel cell to produce electricity. The by-products of the fuel cell
process are water and heat. If fuel cells operate at high temperature, the
system can be set up as a co-generator, with waste energy used for
heating.
Hydrogen Production Technologies
The different hydrogen production technologies are,
1. Thermochemical production technologies
2. Electrolytic production technologies
3. Photolytic production technologies

1. Thermochemical production technologies: Hydrogen bound in

organic matter and in water. There are many processes that can be used to
break these bonds. Most of the hydrogen now produced is by the process
of steam reforming or as a by-product of petroleum refining and chemical
production.
 a. Steam Reforming: Steam reforming used thermal
energy to separate hydrogen from the carbon components in
methane and methanol in presence of steam. First, reaction
decomposes the fuel into hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
Then, reaction changes carbon monoxide and water to
carbon dioxide and hydrogen. These reactions occur at
temperature of 2000 C.
Steam reforming of natural gas is currently the least
expensive method. Natural gas is first cleared from sulphur
compounds. It is then mixed with steam and send over a
nickel-alumina catalyst inside a tubular reactor heated
externally, where carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2)
are generated. Further, a catalytic water-gas shift reaction
that converts the CO and water to hydrogen and carbon
dioxide. The hydrogen gas the then purified.
b. Partial oxidation or ceramic membrane reactor:
In this process, natural gas and oxygen are injected
into a high pressure reactor. The oxygen to carbon
ratio is optimally set for maximizing the yield of CO
and H2. Further, reaction remove the large amount of
heat generated, shift the CO with water to CO 2 and H2
and further H2 is purified. This process needs oxygen,
which is provided by an air distillation plant.
c. Biomass Gasification and Pyrolysis: Hydrogen
can be produced via pyrolysis or gasification by using
agro-waste. Biomass pyrolysis produces a liquid
product contains different components that can be
separated into valuable chemicals and fuels.
 These oxygenated compounds derived mainly from
carbohydrates and lignin. These can be transformed
into products, including hydrogen.
2. Electrolytic Production Technologies: It is
another way to produce hydrogen. Electrolysis
separates the hydrogen and oxygen by charging water
with an electric current. Adding salt improves the
conductivity. The charge breaks the chemical bond
between the hydrogen and the oxygen and split apart
the atomic components, creating charged particles
called ions. The ions form at two poles, the anode (+)
and cathode (-). Hydrogen gathers at the cathode and
oxygen at anode.
 The different methods under electrolytic production
technology are Water Electrolysis, Steam electrolysis,
Photo electrolysis, Thermo chemical water splitting,
by-product of sodium or potassium chloride
electrolysis and Reversible fuel cells or electrolysers.
3. Photolytic Production Technologies: Hydrogen
production can be achieved by using either photo-
electrochemical or photo-biological method.
(a). Photo-electrochemical process: This process use
two types of electrochemical systems to produce
hydrogen. One uses soluble metal complexes as a
catalyst and other uses semiconductor surfaces.
 When the soluble metal complex dissolves, the
complex absorbs solar energy and produces an
electrical charge that drives the water-splitting reaction.
The other method uses semiconducting electrodes in
a photochemical cell to convert optical energy into
chemical energy. The semiconductor surface serves
two function, to absorb solar energy and to act as an
electrode. Light-induced corrosion limits the useful life
of the semiconductor.
(b). Biological and Photobiological Processes:

Some microbes produce hydrogen in their metabolic

activity using light energy. This process use algae and
bacteria to produce hydrogen. Under specific conditions,
the pigments in certain types of algae absorb solar energy.
The enzymes in the cell acts as a catalyst to split the water
molecules. Some bacteria are also capable of producing
hydrogen, but unlike algae, they require a substrate to
grow on. The organisms not only produce hydrogen, but
also can clean up pollution as well
 Hydrogen Energy Storage

Hydrogen has very high energy content by weight but it

has a very low energy content by volume. This makes
hydrogen a challenge to store. Liquified hydrogen is
denser than gaseous hydrogen and thus it contains more
energy in a given volume. Similar sized liquid hydrogen
tanks can store more hydrogen than compressed gas tanks
but it takes energy to liquefy hydrogen. However, the tank
insulation required to prevent hydrogen loss adds to the
weight, volume and cost of liquid hydrogen tank.
 Hydrogen can be stored in materials by following
different process. It can be stored on the surface of solids by
adsorption process or within solids by absorption process.
In adsorption process, hydrogen attaches to the surface of
a material either as hydrogen molecules or hydrogen atoms.
This is also known as surface adsorption storage.
In absorption process, hydrogen molecules dissociate into
hydrogen atoms that are incorporated into the solid lattice
framework. This is also known as intermetallic hydride
storage. This method may make it possible to store larger
quantities of hydrogen in smaller volumes at low pressure
and at room temp. Hydrogen can be strongly bound within
molecular structures, as chemical compounds containing
hydrogen atoms in the form of compressed gas or cryogenic
liquid.
 Methods of Hydrogen Energy Storage
The different methods of hydrogen energy storage are,
1. Compression
2. Liquified Hydrogen
3. Metal Hydrides
1. Compression: The hydrogen can be compressed
into containers or underground reservoirs. This is
relatively simple technology but the energy density
and efficiency (60%) are low. Problem may arise with
the mechanical compression. At present, this method
is the most common form of hydrogen storage. It is
compressed to approximately 700 bar but energy
required for compression is a major drawback.
2. Liquified Hydrogen: The hydrogen can be liquefied
by pressurising and cooling. Although the energy density
is improved but it still four times less than the
conventional petrol. Keeping the hydrogen liquefied is
very energy intensive
3. Metal Hydrides: Certain materials absorb molecular
Hydrogen such as nanostructured carbons.
By absorbing the hydrogen in these materials, it can be
easily transported and stored. Once required, the
hydrogen is removed from the parent material. The
energy density is similar to that obtained for liquefied
hydrogen. The extra material required to store the
hydrogen is a major problem, it create extra cost and
mass.
 Carbon-based absorption can achieve higher energy
densities but it has higher cost. Both metal hydride
and carbon-based absorption use thermal energy. Each
storage technique is in the early stage of development,
and hence there is no optimum method.
 Use of Hydrogen Energy
Hydrogen is being used to power commercial
buses. Hydrogen is used in many commercial
applications from welding metal to dying fabrics for
making electronics plastic and fertilizers. It can be
used as a mobile source of power for transportation by
being compressed and stored in small tanks for
applications similar to gasoline.
The superior ways of using hydrogen energy are,
Internal combustion engines and fuel cells. Fuel cells
converts stored energy (Hydrogen) directly into
electrical energy.
 Application of Hydrogen Energy
• It provides reliable power for entire home
• It is used to power the large office buildings
• It can power cars, buses, airplanes, cell phones etc.
• It can be replace coal, oil and natural gas in
furnaces, internal combustion engines, turbines etc.
• Hydrogen is an industrial raw material for ammonia
synthesis, petroleum reforming, fat hardening.
 Advantages of Hydrogen Energy
1. Hydrogen is a gas, thus, it is easy to store,
environment friendly fuel. When it burns it releases
only water vapour into the atmosphere.
2. Hydrogen can be obtained from any primary energy
source, including renewable energy source
3. It is very efficient when used in fuel cells
4. Very good experience of hydrogen as a chemical
reactant
5. For specific range of applications, it has very good
safety records
6. Decentralized production is possible, it is capable of
providing services where electricity is not available
 Disadvantages of Hydrogen Energy
1. Poor overall energy efficiency
2. Very low density and poor specific volume energy
density
3. Need for high pressures and very low temperatures
if stored in the liquid phase
4. Specific safety problems and poor public
acceptance
5. No existing infrastructures for transport,
distribution and storage
6. Cost is high
 Problem Associated with Hydrogen Energy
The problems that are affecting the development of
hydrogen for household and transport applications are,
1. Hydrogen Storage: The storage of hydrogen is the
major issue. It must be stored at extremely low
temperatures and high pressure. A container capable of
withstanding these specifications is larger than a
standard gas tank.
2. High reactivity of hydrogen: Hydrogen is
extremely reactive. It is combustible and flammable. It
is very dangerous during the fault. It is highly
explosive in gas form.
3. Cost and Methods of hydrogen fuel production:
Energy required for its production is large. Hydrogen
production methods will need to be developed for
hydrogen vehicles.
4. Consumer Demand: Another problem is the
consumer demand and cost to change all gasoline
filling stations and vehicle production lines into
hydrogen. The transport companies will not start to
produce hydrogen vehicles until there is consumer
demand.
5. Cost of changing the infrastructure: To
accommodate hydrogen equipment and appliances.
 Wind Energy
It is an indirect source of solar energy. Wind is free,
clean and inexhaustible source of energy. It can be
economically used for the generation of electrical
power.
Winds are caused due to the following factors,
1. heating and cooling of atmosphere, which generates
convection current. Heating is caused by the
absorption of solar energy on the earth’s surface and in
the atmosphere.
2. The rotation of earth with respect to atmosphere and
its motion around the sun.
 Potential of wind is very large. The energy available in
the winds over the earth’s surface is estimated as 1.6 x
107MW. Wind energy can be used to run the wind mill,
which in turn drives the generator. It can also be used to
provide mechanical power.
The different types of wind mills are
1. Horizontal axis wind mills
a. Multiblade type wind mill
b. Sail type wind mill
c. Propeller type wind mill
2. Vertical axis wind mills
a. Savonius type wind mill
b. Darrieus type wind mill
 Characteristics / Attractive features of wind energy
1. It is a renewable source of energy
2. It is non-polluting
3. It avoids fuel provision and transport
4. It is less costly up to few kW and lower cost
could be achieved by mass production
5. Surrounding land can be used for other purposes
6. The high wind occurs in areas of low priority
land use
7. The collection area is perpendicular to the
ground surface
8. Easy conversion to electrical energy.
 Problem / Disadvantages of wind energy

1. Wind energy is available in dilute and

fluctuating form.

2. The energy conversion machines are very large

3. It needs storage means because of its irregularity

4. Wind energy systems are noisy in operation

5. Large areas are required to instal wind mills
for electrical power generation

6. It is costly
 Anemometer is an instrument used to measure the wind
speed and direction. The maximum wind velocity in India
is estimated as 31 km/hr. For different purpose wind
velocity required is 18 to 31 km/hr and more.

Winds are broadly classified as Planetary winds and

Local winds. Planetary winds are due to the difference in
solar flux on the earth surface, it leads to different air
temperature. Local winds are due to the different heating
of land and water and also due to the hills and mountains.
 The circulation of air in the atmosphere is caused by the non-
uniform heating of the earth’s surface by the sun. The air
immediately above a warm area expands, it is forced upwards by
cool, denser air which flows in from surrounding area causing a
wind. The nature of terrain, the degree of cloud cover and the
angle of the sun in the sky are all factors which influence this
process.
In general during the day the air above the land mass tends to
heat up more rapidly than the air over the water. In costal region
this manifests itself a strong onshore wind but during the night
process is reversed.
Wind Mills: If the mechanical energy is used directly by the
machinery, such as for a pumping water or grinding stones, the
machine is usually called as windmill.

Wind Turbines: Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy of

the wind into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be
used for specific tasks, such as grinding grain, pumping water
or imparting motion to an electric generator that converts
mechanical power into electricity. Wind turbines are similar to
the other prime movers such as diesel engines and steam
turbines. Wind turbines delivers their power through a
revealing shaft. It is coupled to a generator through this shaft.
The generated power is connected to the load. If the mechanical
energy is converted into electricity, the machine is called as
wind generator.
 Power in the Wind
Wind posses energy by virtue of its motion. Any
device capable of slowing down the mass of moving
air, can extract part of the energy and convert into
useful work.
Three factors determines the output from a wind
energy converter are,
1. Wind speed
2. The cross section of wind swept by rotor
3. The overall conversion efficiency of rotor,
transmission system and generator
 The power in the wind can be computed by using the
concept of kinetics. The wind mill woks on the principle of
converting kinetic energy of the wind to mechanical energy.
We know that power is equal to energy per unit time. The
energy available is the kinetic energy of the wind. Hence
Kinetic energy = ½ mV2
The amount of air passing in unit time, through an area A, with
velocity V is A.V and its mass m is equal to its volume
multiplied by its density ρ of air,
Hence, m= ρAV
m is the mass of air trans-versing the area A swept by the
rotating blades of wind mill.
Substituting the value of m in the above equation for kinetic
energy, we get,
 Kinetic energy = ½ ρAV V2 Watts
= ½ ρAV3 Watts ------ (1)
From the above equation it is clear that, the power
in the wind is proportional to the cube of the wind
speed. A small increase in wind speed can have a
marked effect on the power in the wind. Also power
available is proportional to the air density and
intercept area. Since the rotor is circular of diameter
D, hence, area A=Π/4D2
Substituting the value of A in eq. 1 we get,
 The equation tells us that the maximum power
available from the wind varies according to the square
of the diameter of the intercept area or swept area.
The combined effect of wind speed and rotor diameter
on wind power is as shown in diagram.
Basic Components of Wind Energy Conversion
System (WECS)
Physical Arrangement of Wind Electric Generator
 Aero-turbines converts energy in moving air to rotary
mechanical energy. It has pitch and yaw control.
A mechanical interface consists of step up gear and a
coupling. It transmits the rotary mechanical energy to
electrical generator. The output of the generator is
connected to the load or power grid. In a wind turbine the
rotor swept area should be perpendicular to the wind
direction. As and when direction of the wind changes the
rotor has to change its position, which is done by yaw
control. This is done by a servomechanism operated by
wind direction senser.
The controller sense the wind speed, wind direction,
shaft speed, torque, generator temperature and output
power
 Wind Resources
Large areas of the world have average annual wind
speeds below 3 m/s and are not suitable for power
generation. Almost equally large areas have wind speeds in
the intermediate range of 3 - 4.5 m/s, wind power is not an
attractive option. In addition, significant land areas have
mean annual wind speed exceeding 4.5 m/s, where wind
power would most certainly be economically competitive.
Worldwide Wind Energy Scenario:
• Wind is the second most widely used renewable energy
source, as global installed wind power capacity
exceeded 563GW in 2018, accounting for approximately
24% of the world’s total renewable energy generation
capacity.
• China, with an installed capacity of more than
184GW, is the biggest wind energy generator in the
world, followed by the US (94GW by the end of
2018). More than half of the 49GW wind power
capacity added worldwide in 2018 was in China
(20GW) and the US (7GW).
• Germany, Spain, India, the UK, Italy, France, Brazil,
Canada, and Portugal are the other major wind
power-producing countries, which together with
China and the US, account for more than 85% of
total wind power-producing capacity in the world
• Germany keeps its number one position in Europe
followed by Spain
• The highest shares of wind power can be found in
three European countries, Denmark (22%), Portugal
(18%) and Spain (16%).
• Latin America and Africa still played only a
marginal role in new installations.
• Japan and Gulf of Mexico governments need to
reinforce their wind energy policies.
• Many western European countries are showing
stagnation but there is strong growth in the number
of Eastern European countries.
• Asia accounted for the largest share of new
installations (55%), followed by Europe (27%) and
North America (17%)
 Wind Energy in India
Wind power installation in India reached 2.07 GW
in the financial year 2019-20. It is 31% increase
compare to the year 2018-19. Total installed Wind
power capacity in India as on March.2020 is 37.7 GW.
The country currently has the fourth highest wind
installed capacity in the world. The State wise wind
power installations (%) in India is as shown in the
diagram.
Tamilnadu tops the list with ~9.3 GW of
cumulative wind installations, representing a 25%
share of the total installed capacity in India
 The state of Maharashtra has about 4.7 GW of
wind projects, which is 13% of India’s total installed
wind power capacity
The state of Karnataka has ~4.8 GW of wind
projects installed, which represents 13% of the
country’s total installed wind power capacity

Rajasthan has approximately 4.3 GW of wind

projects installed in the state, accounting for 11%
share of the total installed capacity
Installed wind power projects capacity - State wise
(As on March 2020)
STATE TOTAL CAPACITY ( MW)
Tamilnadu 9231
Gujarat 7203
Maharashtra 4794
Karnataka 4753
Rajasthan 4299
Andhra Pradesh 4077
Madhya Pradesh 2519
Telangana 128
Kerala 62
Others 4
Total 37070
 Wind Turbine Site Selection
The power available in the wind increases rapidly
with the speed. Hence wind turbines should be located
in the areas where the winds are strong and persistent.
The most suitable sites for wind turbines are the areas
where the annual average wind speeds are high.
Some of the main considerations for the selection
of site to install wind turbines are,
1. High average annual wind speed
2. Availability of anemometry data
3. Availability of wind V(t) curve at the proposed site
4. Wind structure at the proposed site
5. Altitude of the proposed site
6. Terrain and its aerodynamic
7. Local ecology

8. Distance to roads or railways

9. Distance form load centre

10. Nature of the ground
11. Favourable land cost
12. Icing problem, salt spray or blowing dust
1. High average annual wind speed:
The power available in the wind Pw for a given cross-
sectional for a uniform wind velocity V is,
Pw = KV3
Small increase in V markedly affect the power in the
wind. Hence it is desirable to select a site for wind turbine
with high wind velocity. Wind velocity is the fundamental
parameter.
2. Availability of anemometry data:
The principal object is to measure the wind speed which
is basically determines the wind energy conversion system
(WECS) output power. The Anemometer data should be
available over some time period at the proposed site.
3. Availability of wind V(t) curve at the proposed site:
This curve determines the maximum energy in the
wind. Hence it is principal controlling factor in
predicting the electrical output. It is desirable to have
average wind speed V such that V=12-16 km/hr. The
V(t) curve also determines the reliability of the
delivered generator power. It is desirable to have
measured V(t) curve over about a 5 year period for the
highest confidence level in the reliability estimate.
4. Wind structure at the proposed site:
The ideal case for the WECS would be a site such
that the V(t) curve should be flat ie., A smooth steady
wind that blows all the time.
5. Altitude of the proposed site:
It affects the air density and thus the power in the
wind and hence the useful WECS electric power
output. The winds end to have higher velocities at
higher altitudes.
6. Terrain and its aerodynamic:
One should know about terrain (Strength) of he site to
be chosen. The aero turbine should be always perpendicular
to the actual wind flow. It may be possible to make use of
hills which channel the prevailing winds into a pass region,
thereby obtaining higher wind power.
7. Local ecology:
The land should be plane, if trees or vegetation are
present, all of which tend to de-structure the wind. There
should not be tall obstructions for a radius of 3 km.
8. Distance to roads or railways:
Heavy machinery, structures, materials, blades and
other apparatus will have to be transported to the site,
hence the site should be selected in such a way that, there
should be good road and railway facility.

9. Distance form load centre:

To have a minimum transmission line length and to
minimise the transmission line losses and cost, the site
should be nearer to load centre.
10. Nature of the ground:
Ground conditions should be such that the foundation
for a WECS are secured. Ground surface should be stable.
Erosion problem should not be there.

11. Favourable land cost:

Land cost should be favourable so that total WECS
cost should be less.

12. Icing problem, salt spray or blowing dust:

Icing problem, salt spray or blowing dust should
not present at the site, as they affect the aero-turbine
blades, machinery and electrical apparatus
 Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy lies embedded within the earth.
Huge amount of thermal energy is generated and
stored in core of earth. This thermal energy could be
economically harnessed by drilling. Theis energy can
be tapped only in restricted areas. Heat can be
extracted in the form of hot water or steam through the
drill holes. Both steam and hot water is used for
generating electrical power, heating, drying
applications.
If a well is drilled deep into the ground,
temperature inside it will start to raise, it is found that
temperature increases by 300 C / km.
 Geothermal energy can be defined as the energy stored as hot
water or steam at a depth within lithosphere, which we can get by
drilling.
Under the earth crust, there is a layer of hot and molten rock called magma
(Continuous heat production). The temperature gradient between the magma
and earth’s surface causes magma’s heat to flow slowly towards the surface.
Geothermal area can be found in volcanic, sedimentary and metamorphic rock
formation. Location of geothermal field is determined by regional geology,
characteristics of geothermal system.
Applications
• Generation of electrical power
• Refrigeration and air conditioning
• Space heating
• Green houses by combined space and hot bed heating
• Industrial process heat : Textile industries, paper
manufacturing, plastic manufacturing, dried milk
production, sugar industries, Heavy water production,
sulphur and sulphuric acid production, sewage heat
treatment, mining, gasification of coal, powdered coffee
production etc.

• Drying applications : Timber seasoning, Crop drying,

drying of fishmeal, drying of cement slabs, soil warming,
drying of organic materials, seaweeds, grass, vegetables etc.
 Advantages
• Geothermal energy is versatile in its use
• It is cheaper
• Geothermal energy delivers greater amount of net
energy
• Geothermal power plants have highest annual load
factors
• Pollution is less
• Geothermal energy can be used for multiple
applications from a single resource
• It is a renewable energy source and has highest
energy density.
 Disadvantages
• Overall efficiency for power production is low, about
15%
• Drilling operation is noisy
• Large areas are needed for exploitation of geothermal
energy
• During the process of extraction of geothermal
energy, carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen sulphide
and radon gases are produced, if it is released it
causes air pollution. These gases are to be removed by
chemical action, before they are discharges.
 Classification of Geothermal Systems
Geothermal systems developed are of two categories
1. Vapour dominated (Dry steam) geothermal systems
2. Liquid dominated (Hot water) geothermal systems
1. Vapour dominated (Dry steam) geothermal systems
These systems are uncommon and poorly understood
when compared to liquid-dominated system. This system
requires relatively potent heat supplies and low initial
permeability. After an early hot water stage, a system
becomes vapour dominated, ie., when net discharge starts
to exceed recharge, steam boils from a declining water
table and some steam escapes to the atmosphere. Most of
the steam condenses below the surface, where its surface
of
Vaporization can be conducted upwards. The main vapour-
dominated reservoir actually is a very deep water table,
where the transmission is in the upward direction Most
liquid condensate flows down to the water table, but some
may be swept out with steam in channels of principal up
flow. Liquid water favours small pores and channels
because of the high surface tension relative to that of
steam. Steam is largely excluded from smaller spaces, but
greatly dominates the larger channels and discharge from
the wells.
2. Liquid dominated (Hot water) geothermal systems
Hot water geothermal fields at comparatively modest
temperature are present in many parts of the world. It is
used for direct heat applications. In Italy and North
America, wells deeper than 100 m were found to yield
lightly superheated steam. But some wells produce hot
water and steam in non-commercial quantities and
pressures.
In New Zealand and in Mexico, liquid-dominated
geothermal field has been discovered. New Zealand first
demonstrated the generation of geothermal power. Hot
water up to 2600 C are erupted through wells to the
surface. Some water flashes to steam as temperature and
steam directed through turbine to generate electricity.
 The geothermal system contains 1-3% of various
gases with large amount of hydrogen sulphide and less
amount of hydrogen, methane , nitrogen etc.
 Geothermal Resource Utilization
1. Direct use of low grade geothermal energy
– Aquaculture and Horticulture
– Industry and Agriculture
– Food Processing
– Providing Heat for Residential use
2. Electricity Generation
– Flashed Steam Plants
– Dry Steam Plants
– Binary Power Plants
– Hybrid Power Plants
 3. Multi-purpose total energy utilization
of geothermal resources
• Steam is separated in a conventional manner and
used to supply cheap water
• Carbon dioxide extracted form the gases are used
for refrigeration and food processing
• Hydrogen sulphide refined to obtain sulphur
• Hot water form the wells could supply a
desalination plant
• Hot water can be used for air conditioning and
refrigeration .
 Geothermal energy is used to supply heat and steam
in aquaculture and horticulture in order to raise plants
and marine life that require tropical environment. In
Italy many formers use geothermal power to heat their
green houses and hot water to grow vegetables in the
winter. Eighty percent of the energy demand from
vegetable growers is met by using geothermal energy. It
is also used in fishing forms. Fish growers from
countries like china, japan, Iceland use geothermal
power.
In industries geothermal power is used for drying
fruits, vegetables, and wood, It is used to heat roads to
prevent freezing. Timber is dried and paper mills use it
for all stages of processing.
 Heat and steam extracted is used for sterilize
equipment's and rooms. Further, it is used for heating
residential buildings. Low temperature geothermal
resources are typically used in direct use applications,
such as greenhouses, fisheries, mineral recovery and
industrial process heat.
The heat energy obtained by drilling is transferred
to a working fluid, hence steam is produced. This
generated steam is passed through the turbine and
work will be done by the steam thus electrical power
will be generated. Electrical power will be generated
directly by using steam, which is obtained by drilling
that can be carried through pipes.
 Geothermal Resource Exploration
The regions with high heat flow are in zones of
early volcanic and tectonic activity, and most of them
are characterized by hot springs. The methods that
play major role in geothermal exploration techniques
are geological, geochemical, electrical, gravitational,
magnetic and thermal methods. Some important
geological research problems are concerned with the
determination of age, size and magnetic type igneous
occurrences related to convective hydrothermal and
permeable rock systems and the relationship of
convective hydrothermal systems to broad region of
the elevated heat flow. Geological study of the surface
is done by collection and analysis of samples. Aerial
photography is the most useful method to detect the
geothermal source by means of remote sensing and
thermal scanning. Such photographs are invaluable in
the geothermal surveys. The use of radar is of great
help for obtaining good quality pictures through cloud
covers. Infrared scanners can distinguish negligible
temperature differences. Thus, aerial surveys with
infrared scanners have great future in the detection of
geothermal resources.
Another technique is the direct measurement of
temperature gradient at the depth of 25-100 m.
geothermal exploration can be done by the measuring
the electrical conductivity at a depth, which varies directly with
temperature, salinity of terrestrial fluid, and content of clays.
Electrical conductivity is measured by electromagnetic methods.
Electrical resistivity techniques is helpful to know the variation
of porosity, water salinity and the temperature in actual
geothermal reservoirs.

Latest technique of rotary drilling is promising for geothermal

resource exploration but it needs improvement. Hydrological
studies are required to understand fully the effect of groundwater
movement in a local geothermal gradient.
 Geothermal Based Electric Power Generation
Different methods of geothermal based electric power
generations are,
1. Dry steam based geothermal power plant
2. Flash geothermal power plants
3. Binary cycle based geothermal plants
1. Dry steam based geothermal power plant
Dry steam plants have been operating for over 100 years. In a
dry steam plant, steam produced directly from the geothermal
reservoir runs the turbines that power the generator. Dry steam
systems are relatively simple, requiring only steam and condensate
injection piping and minimal steam cleaning devices. It requires a
rock catcher to remove large solids, a centrifugal separator to
remove condensate and small solid particulars, condensate drains
along the pipelines, and scrubber to remove dissolved solids
 Figure shows the arrangement of dry steam
geothermal electric power plant. Heat energy, which is
obtained by drilling is transferred to a working fluid.
Steam generated in the boiler is passed through the
turbine and work will be done by the steam thus
electrical power will be generated. The exit steam from
the turbine is condensed by using condenser. Electrical
power will be generated directly by using steam, which
is obtained by drilling that can be carried through pipes.
2. Flash geothermal power plants
In this process high pressure hot water is flashed
(vaporized) into steam inside a flash tank by lowering
the pressure. This steam is then used to drive the turbine.
This is the most common method of generating power.
At high pressure below earth’s surface, the water
exists as compressed liquid. Pipeline is installed to tap
into the resource. When the compressed liquid water
reaches the surface at atmospheric pressure then, a
portion of it immediately flashes to steam. This steam is
directed towards the turbine, where power is produced.
The exhaust is then passed through the condenser, where
it is returned to liquid. This hot
liquid water can then be used for further heating
applications prior to the reinjection into the rock.
Fluid at temperature greater than 180 0 C is pumped
under high pressure into a tank at the surface held at a
much low pressure, causing some of the fluid to rapidly
vaporize or flash. The steam is separated form the liquid in
a steam separator. The vapour then drives a turbine, which
drives the generator.
Flash Geothermal Power Plants are of two types
• Singe-flash geothermal steam electric power plant
• Double-flash geothermal steam electric power plant
The schematic arrangement of a single and double flash
geothermal steam power plant are as shown in the
diagram.
3. Binary Cycle-based Geothermal Plants
In this process, the geothermal fluid, which can be
either hot water, steam, or a mixture of the two, heats the
working fluid (isopentane or isobutane). The working
fluid boils at a lower temperature than water. When hot
water or steam is passed through the heat exchanger,
where working fluid vaporizes into steam, which further
passes through the turbine that power the generator. In
this process, resource temperature varies from 750 C to
1700 C
 Operation of Geothermal Plants
• Geothermal plants are simpler to operate as compare to
fuel fired steam plants
• Geothermal plants can be operated without round the
clock attention.
• Unit may be operated unattended, hence it require
annunciator to generate an alarm, so that alarm may be
transmitted to an attendant station where appropriate
action could be taken based on the information received.
• Unit should be inspected at an interval less than that
normally used for fossil units
• The steam jet ejector creates high noise levels that
requires the use of ear protectors when working near
them.
 Associated Problems
The major problems of geothermal power are,
• Estimation of the power life of the reservoir to make
a reasonably accurate decision on the size of station
to be built.
• The separation of steam from the stem-water
mixtures at the well heads and transmission of steam
only through a long pipeline to the power house.
• Selection of materials that are suitable for
geothermal systems and plants. Materials should
have large resistance to corrosion for gaseous
products and properties to fulfil the
electromechanical and other requirements.
• Since automatic-start control is expensive, manual-
start control is used. Hence care should be taken
before the unit is restarted.
 Environmental Effects
The various environmental effects are,

1. Gaseous and particulate emission

2. Land pollution
3. Subsidence effect ( Sudden sinking of the earth’s
surface

4. Seismic hazards (Earthquakes)

5. Water pollution
6. Biological effects
7. Social effects
1. Gaseous and particulate emission:
Fluids drawn from the deep earth carry a mixture
of gases, such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide,
methane, ammonia etc. These pollutants contribute to
global warming, acid rain, and noxious smells if
released.
In addition to the dissolved gases, hot water from
geothermal sources may contain toxic chemicals such
as mercury, arsenic, boron, and antimony. These
chemicals precipitate as the water cools and can cause
environmental damage. Some of the noxious materials
creating air pollution from the existing geothermal
steam are hydrogen sulphides, mercuric compounds,
Radioactive materials such as lead and radon. Hence safe disposal of these
materials must be developed.
2. Land pollution:

Prevention of degradation of usable soil and the control of on-site surface

disposition of pollutant that may be transported from the site of production to the

surrounding environment. Types of geothermal field complicate these problems.

In case of water-dominated geothermal system, the effect of accidental run off

of geothermal fluids from the production site to surrounding land areas need to

be assessed with an identification of surface deposited material that may harm

plant soil sterility or be subjected to biological magnification and entrance into

food chains. It is necessary to minimize the land pollution by chemical

deposition and to control possible erosion at the site.

3. Subsidence Effect:
Subsidence occur in some areas when a fluid is
removed from the ground. In some areas, the removal of
equal quantities of fluid produced no measurable
subsidence. Subsidence effects are better understood from
studies of booth petroleum and ground water reservoir
4. Seismic Hazards:
Geothermal resource areas are closely associated with
the regions of the high geologic activity, which is
manifested most commonly as earthquakes. If fluid
pressures are changed in regions of tectonics stresses,
fluid pressures are also changed in regions of earthquake
activity.
Seismic monitoring stations should be established near
productive geothermal areas to determine if patterns
emerge, these patterns appears to be related to the
removal or injection of fluids from geothermal
reservoirs.
5. Water Pollution:
The problem associated with the utilization of
geothermal resources is the contamination of surface
and ground water by geothermal fluids. Specific
research is required to identify the chemical
constituents, which may have a detrimental effect.
Chemical and isotopic studies should be undertaken to
determine the pollutants.
6. Biological Effect:

Various unknown effects exist due to the impact of

geothermal operation upon the bio-nature. It causes an
effect on natural environment, damage to many species of
plant and animal life, it can take place through changes of
chemical balance in soil and water.

It can causes interruption of migratory patterns, long term

alteration in humidity etc. Hence it is essential to protect
plants and animal life in the region of development.
7. Social Effects:

Serious social effects arising from geothermal

resource development, which need research, involve
problems of noise and land use. Sociological,
economical and planning studies are greatly needed in
the areas of geothermal energy resources.
 Solid Waste and Agricultural Refuse
Waste to Wealth:
The waste management concepts are changing
globally. The focus is to modify all resources from
waste to wealth. Some of the driving forces of change
(waste to wealth) are,
• Growing concern about the hazards of waste disposal
• Broad environmental concerns, especially global
warming and resource depletion
• Economic opportunities created by new regulations
and technological innovation
• Fuel shortage and fuels can be produced from
agricultural refuse
 The following are the main concepts introduced for
converting waste materials to usable fuel and energy,
with main concern of minimizing the environmental
damage.
1. Heat energy generation --- Direct combustion of
waste to heat energy
2. Bioenergy generation --- Methane generation
3. Eco-modification through recycling ---- Recycling
conserve material, fuel, and energy
4. Fuel and energy generation from forest and
agricultural and municipal wastes ---- All wastes
are considered as raw resources for converting
them into improved fuels and energy
 Incinerators
It is a furnace where waste is burnt to produce
energy, due to which it reduces volume of solid waste
but it does not dispose the toxic substances. The
burning o waste produces heat that boils the water.
Thus, the steam obtained is used to convert heat
energy into electrical energy. Modern incinerators are
equipped with pollution improvement systems to
remove health hazardous gases. The combustion
temperature is about 10000 C. Flue gases are sent
through scrubbers for the removal of dangerous
chemicals. A high chimney having cooling systems
are installed as it removes the hazardous gases.
 Incineration with recovery of energy is considered
the best method of waste management and dominates
over landfill and plain incineration. It converts solid
waste into ash, flue gas and heat.
Process of Incineration:
1. Auditing of waste: Understanding the quality,
quantity and composition of wastes is the important
step in selecting the appropriate disposal options.
2. Proper Incinerator selection: It is essential to assess
the suitability of existing incinerators capability to
disposal of newly added wastes. The equipment design
should be appropriate. The recommended configuration
is a dual-chamber controlled air incinerator.
3. Proper Operation of Incinerator: Operation correctly
ensures optimum combustion conditions. It includes
separation and sorting of wastes, weighting and
mixing it for specific calorific value and closing and
opening of incinerator door for complete combustion
of wastes. Personal safety is very important.
4. Removal of dangerous chemicals and toxic gases:
Combustion of waste at high temperature release
chlorine-enriched organic substances. The installation
of high chimney with cooling system and scrubbers
removes chlorine compounds and dangerous toxic
gases contained in the flue gases.
5. Safe handling and disposal of incinerator residues:

Ash or residues obtained from bottom of chamber

of the incinerator containing materials that health
hazardous and environmental polluting materials and
disposed off as per standard norms. Incinerated waste
is finally disposed in landfills.
 Advantages of Incineration
1. It is the practical method of disposal that
minimizes high transport cost of wastes to landfills
2. It largely reduces the carbon footprint during the
transportation of wastes
3. Large reduction in the amount of waste volume
after incineration requires less space for landfills,
thus saving money
4. Incinerated wastes are totally free of any
environmental risk
5. Gases and leachates produce in landfills by waste
are completely eliminated
6. It is used for hazardous and clinical waste
treatments.

7. It is used for generation of electricity

8. It can be operated under any weather conditions
9. This method is cheaper in the long tern and has
long life span
 Disadvantages of Incineration

1. It can generate hazardous gases such as furans and

dioxins (by-product of chlorine). Which causes
cancer, affects the functioning of hormones, and
damages the immune system.

2. It can generate carbon dioxide and odour sometimes

3. Expensive to build and operate and requires

high energy.
 Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is an alternative method of municipal waste disposal, ie.,

by anaerobic digestion, landfill storage and incineration. In this
technology organic waste is burnt at relatively low temperatures to
produce char, oils, and combustible gases. Oil can be used as a fuel.
Feedstock includes mixed waste, plastics, tires and sewage sludge. It
involves chemically mining (decomposition of organic waste by heat
in absence of oxygen) the waste to produce element that can be used
for energy generation.
In this process organic materials are transformed into gases, liquids
and solid residue containing carbon and ash. The different types of
pyrolysis units are rotary kiln, rotary hearth furnace and fluidized bed
furnace. These are similar to incinerators, operate at low temperature
and less air supply. Pyrolysis liquids can be used as boiler fuel, motor
fuels, chemicals, adhesives etc.
 Advantages of Pyrolysis
1. Volume of the waste is significantly reduced
2. Produces useful products for multiple applications.
Solid, liquid and gaseous fuel can be produced from
the waste
3. Storable or transportable fuel or chemical feedstock
is obtained
4. It is safer and more environmental friendly than
incineration, land filling
5. Contamination of air emissions is easy to control
6. Replace coal and natural gas as viable fuel source,
causing reduction in climate change
7. It is a sustainable process by reusing thrown away
products that can be recycled again and again
8. Pyrolysis plants are flexible and easy to operate
9. It is a desirable process as energy is obtained from
renewable sources such as municipal solid waste or
sewage sludge.
Disadvantages of Pyrolysis
1. Generates toxic residues such as inert mineral ash,
inorganic compounds and carbon
2. It produce toxic air emissions such as acid gases,
dioxins and furans, nitrogen oxide, sulphur dioxide etc.
3. It requires a certain amount of material to work
effectively.
 DIFFERENCES
Pyrolysis
• Thermal degradation in
absence of oxygen
• It carried out at lower
temp. 4500 to 5000 C & no
combustion
• It produces the liquid fuel
• It is a controlled chemical
process
• It has excellent practical
performance in controlling
the emission of harmful
substances like dioxins
Incineration
• It requires oxygen in the
form air
• It carried out at higher
temp. 8500 C or higher
and combustion takes
place
• It produces energy as heat
• It reduce the quantity of
waste to be land filled
• It produces CO2, nitrogen,
sulphur dioxide and other
organic and inorganic air
emission
 Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion is a series of biological
processes in which microorganisms break down
biodegradable material in absence of oxygen.
Anaerobic digester is an airtight chamber in which
organic waste is decomposed and transformed into
biogas by a biological process called anaerobic
digestion. Biogas can be used to generate electricity
and heat. The feed stocks are livestock, manure,
municipal waste, kitchen waste, fats, oils and various
other organic waste. The digested slurry is very good
fertilizer which is rich in P, N, K and can be used
directly in agricultural fields.
 Recycling
Recycling involves the collection of used and
discarded materials in order to process these materials
and make them into new products. It reduces the
amount of waste that is thrown into the community
dustbins, thereby making the environment clean and
the air fresh to breathe. Recycling is an economic
development as well as an environmental tool. Reuse,
recycling and waste reduction offer direct
development opportunities for communities. It can
contribute to local revenue, job creation, business
expansion.
 Recycling based economic development has been
the heart of waste to wealth program of national
economy. Recycling and reusing reduce the pressure
on primary resources. In some sectors, such as
machinery, cars and household appliances, there has
been a long term practice of scrap recycling and it
offers many social benefits.
 Bioenergy Conversion
It is the most promising energy conversion
techniques, because of the following points.
1. Absence of or the difficulties related to the
installations of centralized power supply systems
2. Increasing energy demand for energy even in
remote rural areas or isolated parts of the county
3. Basic need for large amounts of protein for food
and feeding purpose
4. Inexpensive methods available for collecting and
storing of energy
 It utilizing biomass as a source of liquid fuel such as
methanol or ethanol or producer gas for electrical power
generation. The production of usable energy through
algae and similar crops include the following steps.
1. Photosynthesis production of organic matter
2. Collection and processing of plant materials
3. Fermentation of organic matter leading to liquid and
gaseous fuels
Sugar crops and algal crops are the most promising
crops suitable for bioenergy conversion.
 Key Issues

The following are the key issues that must be investigated before

the economic viability of a refuse-derived fuel (RFD) scheme.

1. Collection of waste from doorsteps, commercial places,
community dump and final disposal sites
2. The volume and nature of refuse to be processed
3. The type of efficient RFD process required and market for fuel
product
4. The required potential users and the revenue obtainable
5. The economy of the alternative method of disposal of the refuse
6. The utilization of solar thermal energy for increasing the
temperatures of digesters
 Waste Recovery Management Scheme
A simple waste, refuse resource recovery scheme is as
shown in the diagram. Which represent the various
important scheme components as energy use and solid
waste generation, transportation, storage, energy recovery,
treatment and final disposal of the waste.
Energy recovery scheme from the waste involves,
• Identification and separation of waste from the main
waste stream
• On site processing of waste
• Collection and transportation components of waste
• Cost analysis and implementation
• The storage of waste for resource recovery and final
disposal after suitable treatment
Fig. Representation of Waste Refuse Energy Management
 Two Types of energy recovery systems used are,
1. Separation of metals, paper and glass from the waste
through the process such as size reduction,
screening, vibrating sorting and electronic scanning.
2. Conversion of the remaining waste product to usable
form of energy and energy conversion may include
the following,
(a) Generation of methane gas or other fuel
(biological conversion)
(b) Generation of electricity – thermo mechanical
process
(c) Composting of fertilizers
 Advantages of Waste Recycling
Waste recycling is a process of using waste products
into in to new products. It is an important step towards
energy conservation and reduction in pollution.
1. Reduced Damage to Environment: This is the
foremost advantage of recycling and this promotes
environmental protection in a balanced manner
Example: Recycling of used old papers –
Deforestation is reduced and natural resources are
conserved.
2. Reduced Consumption of Energy: Large amount
of energy is consumed when raw materials are
processed during the manufacturing. Recycling helps
to reduce the energy consumption and it is cost
effective. It reduces the usage of raw materials. It
reduces the creation of waste at source.
3. Reduced Environmental Impact and Pollution:
Industrial waste is the major source of pollution.
Recycling industrial products such as plastics and
other scraps help a lot in cutting down levels of
pollution. It saves on requirement of open landfill
spaces, surrounding is clean and healthy. It also
reduces environmental impact of traditional methods
of waste treatment and disposal
4. Mitigate Global Warning: Recycling aids in
reducing the global warming and its harsh effects.
Now a days, massive waste is being burned producing
large amount of greenhouse gas emission. Therefore
recycling is an effective way of ensuring that the
process of burning is reduced and waste are
regenerated and converted to useful and eco-friendly
products without creating harmful impact to the
environment.
5. Promotes Sustainable Utilization of Resources:
Recycling promotes sustainable and wise use of
resources. This activity helps ensure that there is no
discriminate use of materials and resources saving
Them for possible use in the future.
 Disadvantages of Waste Recycling
1. High Cost of Recycling: The establishment of
separate facilities in order to process products and
make them reusable is cost effective. This might
somehow trigger pollution in terms of transporting the
materials and cleaning activities.
2. Durability and Small Life Span of Recycled Items:
The durability and efficiency of recycled products
does not guarantee 100%. Recycled products are
sometimes taken from cheap and overused materials.
Therefore there is no assurance of long life.
3. Unsafe and Unhygienic Process: Recycling sites and
processes are often unhygienic and unsafe and this might
be dangerous to health.
Tips on Reducing Waste and Conserving Resources
(The Three R’s – Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle)
The three R’s help to cut down on the amount of
waste, they conserve natural resources, landfill space,
money and energy.
• Reduce: This is the most effective of the three R’s.
The best way to manage waste is to not produce it.
This can be done by shopping carefully and being
aware of a few guidelines,
1. Use of disposable goods such as paper and plastic
plates, cups, napkins, etc. must be avoided.
Throwaways of disposable goods contribute to the
waste disposal problem.
2. well-built durable goods or that carry good warranties
should be purchased. They will last longer save money in
the long run and save landfill space.
3. Electronic mail, online railway reservation, banking
services etc., minimize the wastage of paper
4. Use of cloth napkins, jute bags, and dish cloth towels
should be encouraged in place of paper and plastic made
products.
5. Avoid overly packaged goods. The packaging is a total
throw away material
6. Thinks made with toxic materials must be avoided
7. Use of water and electricity must be minimized. Highly
energy efficient electrical and electronic goods should be
purchased
• Reuse:
It makes economic and environmental sense to
reuse products.
1. Reusing an item means, it continues to be a
valuable, useful, productive item and replaces new
items that would utilize more water, energy,
timber, petroleum and other limited natural
resources in their manufacture.
2. Tools, windows, doors, light fixtures, paint,
plumbing supplies and fixtures, architectural
pieces, fencing, hardware and many other items
needed for constructing a building can be used
from available waste building materials
3. Desks, tables, chairs, stacking trays, notebook
binders and other equipment and supplies can be
reused in offices, schools, hospitals etc.
4. Reuse products for the same purpose, save paper
and plastic bags, and repair broken appliances,
furniture and toys
Recycle: It is the reprocessing of disposed materials
into new and useful products. Items that are
commonly recycled are glass, plastic, paper and
metal. Recycling is a series of steps that takes a used
material and processes, remanufactures and sells it as
a new product.
1. A recycled plastic bottle is chipped, melted and
made into fibre, which becomes a jacket or
sleeping bag stuffing.

2. Recycling household waste is a relatively simple

and inexpensive way to contribute to a better
global environment
 Sources and Types of Wastes
The following are some of the wastes,
1. Residential wastes: It includes kitchen wastes, paper,
cardboards, clothes, leather materials, plastics and rubber
materials. Further, glass, wood, metal crockery, furniture,
electrical and electronics appliances and gadgets etc.

2. Municipal Services waste: They include general wastes

collected from street sweeping, park, recreational places,
sludge, landscaping and tree trimming.
3. Industrial and commercial waste: They are housekeeping
and food wastes, packaging and demolition material waste,
scraps, hazardous wastes, wood, cardboard, paper, plastic
etc.
4. Building construction and demolitions:

They include various types of wastes such as

wood, concrete, steel, dust etc.
5. Agriculture:
it consists of dairy and agriculture farm crop
waste, hazardous pesticides, etc.
 Recycling of Plastics
Plastics play an important role in almost every
aspect of our lives. The use of plastics demands proper
end of plastic life management. The largest amount of
plastics is found in containers and packaging, such as
drink bottles, lids, shampoo bottles etc. and non
durable goods such as diapers, trash bags, cups and
utensils, medical devices etc. The recycling rate for
different types of plastic varies greatly. Plastics are
versatile material that can be a valuable asset to
recycling program.
Plastics can be divided into two major categories,
namely thermosets and thermoplastics.
Thermosets: A thermoset solidifies irreversibly when
heated. They are useful for their durability and strength.
They are used in automobiles and construction
applications.
Thermoplastics: it softens when exposed to heat and
returns to original condition at room temperature.
Thermoplastics can easily be shaped and molded into
Products such as milk jugs, floor coverings, credit cards
and carpet fibers etc.
Recycling plastic material is one of the important
environmental agenda defined in the three R’s. According
to estimation only 7% of the plastic is recycled. Recycling
of plastic will reduce the consumption of non-renewable
fossil fuels, energy,
the amount of solid waste going to landfill, and the
amount of carbon emission.
An effective process and a effective plant that
successfully converts plastic waste into wax-free
hydrocarbon such as naphtha and diesel oil is an
important plastic recycling system.
Plastics from municipal solid wastes are usually
collected, then, they go to an material recovery
facility, where the materials are sorted by plastic type,
baled and sent to a reclaiming facility. At the facility,
any trash or dirt is sorted out, then the plastics are
washed and ground into small flakes. A flotation tank
may be used to further separate contaminants based
on their different densities. Flakes are then dried,
melted, filtered and formed into pellets. The pellets
are shipped to product manufacturing plants, where
they are made into new plastic products.
Benefits of Plastic Recycling
1. Energy and natural resource conservation

2. Environmental Protection

3. Reducing the dumping spaces (Landfill)

4. Energy conservation
1. Energy and natural resource conservation:

The first and foremost benefit of recycling of plastics

is the conservation of petroleum products and water
used for making new plastic products. Oil and natural
gas are the two main components used for the
production of the raw material used to make plastic.
The supply of natural resources are limited in supply,
and also high demand for other important uses such as
powering automobiles and production of electricity.
2. Environmental Protection:
The benefits of recycling of plastics include reduction
in emission of greenhouse gases. By using recycled plastic
materials, production time is greatly reduced, which
means that less greenhouse emissions are making their
way into the atmosphere. One of the important benefits
of recycling of plastics is that it saves life of animals ,
birds and aquatic creatures from fatal due to ingestion of
plastics. Pollution of air, soil and water is greatly reduced
by recycling of plastics.
3. Reducing the dumping spaces (Landfill):
Plastics are not a biodegradable materials, hence it can
be as it is in the landfill for hundreds of years. Recycling
plastic products also keeps them out of landfills and allow
the plastics to be reused in manufacturing new products.
Landfill space is largely reduced by recycling of plastics.
4. Energy conservation:
By using recyclable plastic materials, factories can
produce new plastic products using approximately 2/3
less energy than with raw material production.
 Advantages of Recycling of Plastics
1. It reduces the environmental pollution
2. It is good for practicing green living
3. It saves the energy, resource and money (Energy
conservation)
4. It reduces the dumping(landfill) spaces
5. Production time is greatly reduced
Disadvantages of Recycling of Plastics
1. It is non-degradable material, it takes hundreds
of years for biodegradation
2. It takes money, time and energy to recycle plastic
 Methods of Recycling of Plastics
The different methods of recycling of plastics are,
• Thermal Depolymerization

• Catalytic Pyrolysis of Waste Plastics

• Plastic waste to Oil Production in India

• Waste Plastic to Electricity Generation
• Thermal Depolymerization:
Thermal depolymerization is a depolymerization
Process using hydrous pyrolysis for the reduction of
complex organic materials into light crude oil. Under
pressure and heat, long chain polymers of hydrogen,
oxygen and carbon decompose into short-chain
petroleum hydrocarbons.
Pyrolysis is a process of thermal degradation of a
material in absence of oxygen. Plastic is fed into a
cylindrical chamber, the pyrolytic gases are condensed
in a specially designed condenser system to yield
liquid fuel product. The plastic is pyrolysed at 400 0 C
• Catalytic Pyrolysis of Waste Plastics :

In this method, a suitable catalyst is used to carry

out the cracking reaction. The presence of catalysts
lowers the reaction temperature and time. It occurs at
lower temperature and cost should be reduced to make
the process more attractive. This process solve the
acute environmental problem of disposal of plastic
waste.
• Plastic waste to Oil Production in India :
In India, Surat will be the first in the state of Gujarat
to convert plastic waste into crude oil and pellets, which
could be further used as fuel substitute to power
industrial units, vehicles, power plants, boilers and
generators.
This process is simple, forced air, heated by a gas
burner is used to indirectly heat the feedstock inside the
process vessels. The air is continually recycled in a loop
to minimize heat loss. The vessel is isolated from oxygen
and is exposed to a vacuum environment. The energy
transferred to the plastic feedstock from the burner is
used to depolymerize the plastic into crude oil.
• Waste Plastic to Electricity Generation :

The plastics break down in a waste combustor to

create an alternative source of fuel to generate electricity.

This process is carried out in double-tank combustor
design. Plastic waste is first processed in an upper tank
through pyrolysis, which converts solid plastic into gas.
Next, the gas flows to lower tank, where it is burned with
oxidants to generate heat and steam. The heat sustains the
combustor while the steam is used to generate electricity.