Biomolecules

Biomolecules are compounds present in a

living system such as the human body.

 These biomolecules are important for the

proper functioning of the system.
 Some of these biomolecules are proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids.
What makes up these biomolecules?

 Carbon – Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids

 Hydrogen – water, carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids
 Oxygen – water, carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
 Nitrogen – proteins, nucleic acids
 Phosphorus – nucleic acids and bones
 Sulfur - proteins
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are biomolecules composed primarily
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They follow the
chemical formula.
 They are usually present in cereals, grains such as rice,
bread, noodles, and fruits.
 Carbohydrates are the primary sources of energy in
the body. Each gram of carbohydrates can release
approximately 4 kilocalories of energy when burned.
3 Classifications of Carbohydrates

1. Monosaccharides
- are considered the simplest sugars
and serve as the building blocks of
carbohydrates.
Monosaccharides include glucose,
galactose, and fructose.
 Glucose – also known as dextrose or
blood sugar, is a main source of energy
for the cells. It is broken down in a
process called glycolysis. And other
metabolic pathways to release energy for
body processes.
 Fructose - is the considered as the
sweetest of all the sugar units. This
simple sugar is sometimes called
fruit sugar or levulose. It is usually
found in most sweet fruits, in honey,
and in corn syrup.
 Galactose – is another important
monosaccharide. It is found in
biological systems as component of
milk, usually in mammals.
2. Disaccharides
- Is formed by the union of two or
more simple sugar by a glycosidic
bond.
Common disaccharides are:

 Sucrose – is commonly known as

table sugar, cane sugar or beet
sugar. It is the result of the
combination of glucose and
fructose.
 Lactose – also known as milk sugar.
- it is a disaccharide formed from
glucose and galactose units.

 Maltose – or malt sugar is a disaccharide

that links to glucose units.
 3. Polysaccharides.
 Are the largest and the most complex
carbohydrates.
 They contain many simple sugar units
linked together. Common examples of
polysaccharides are starch, glycogen,
and cellulose.
 Starch – is a heterogeneous
material that contains glucose units.
In plants, starch is considered the
glucose storage found in grains and
cereals, potatoes, and beans.
 Cellulose – is another polysaccharide
that contains approximately 3,000
glucose units.
- component of the plant cell
wall, making it a structural
carbohydrate for most plants.
 Glycogen – is considered the
glucose storage molecule in animals.
This is usually stored in the liver and
skeletal muscles.
PROTEINS
 Proteins are biomolecules that are
considered to be the most abundant in the cells.
 They perform a wide variety of functions.
One of them is that they serve as defense
proteins such as antibodies. These are
specific proteins that combat foreign
materials called antigens in our immune
system.
Enzymes are also proteins that function
as biological catalysts: they speed up
biochemical reactions in the body.

Another function of proteins is to

transfer material from one part of the
body to another. (Ex: hemoglobin)
Proteins also regulate cell functions
such as the repair of torn-out tissues.

 They also act as mechanicl support

for bones, tendons, and skin such as
the keratin in our hair and nails.
 Amino acids

 The building blocks of proteins are

called amino acids.
The structure of an amino acid has four different
groups of molecules attached to the a-carbon.
This 4 groups are (1) the carboxyl group (-
COO-), (2) the amino group (, (3) the hydrogen,
and (4) the side chain group (R). The identity and
classification of each amino acid depend on the
nature of the side chain group.
Amino Acid 3-letter 1-letter
Abbreviation Abbreviation

Alanine Ala A
Arginine Arg R
Asparagine Asn N
Aspartic acid Asp D

Cystein Cys C
Glutamic acid Glu E

Glutamine Gln Q
Amino Acid 3-letter 1-letter
Abbreviation Abbreviation
Glycine Gly G
Histidine His H
Isoleucine Ile I
Leucine Leu L
Lysine Lys K
Methionine Met M
phenylalanine Phe F
Amino Acid 3-letter 1-letter
Abbreviation Abbreviation
Proline Pro P
Serine Ser S
Threonine Thr T
Tryptophan Trp W
Tyrosine Tyr Y
Valine Val V
 Structure of Proteins

 The structures of proteins are

actually categorized into four types:
(1) primary, (2) secondary, (3)
tertiary, and (4) quaternary.
 1. Primary Structure
 The primary structure is the linear amino acid
sequence of the protein. This results from the
peptide bonds present among these amino acids. A
peptide bond is the bond that forms between the
carboxyl group of one amino acid with the amino
group of another amino acid.
 2. Secondary Structure
 The secondary structure results when
the primary sequence of the amino acids
folds and forms repeating structures.
Aside from peptide bonds, hydrogen
bonds are also responsible for these
repeating structures.
 The secondary structure of proteins include helix
and pleated sheet.

3. Tertiary Structure
 It pertains to the 3-dimensional structure of
proteins.
4. Quaternary structure
 The most complex structure of proteins
Functions:
1. For growth and Maintenance
 Your body needs proteins for growth
and maintenance of tissues.
 Yet your body’s proteins are in
constant state of turnover.
 Under normal circumstances, your body
breaks down the same amount of protein that it
uses to build and repair tissues. Other times, it
breaks down more protein than it can create,
thus increasing your body’s needs.
 These typically happens in periods of illness,
during pregnancy and breastfeeding.
 People recovering from injury or surgery,
older adults, athletes require more proteins as
well.
 Summary: Protein is required for
the growth and maintenance of
tissues. Your body’s protein needs
are dependent upon your health
and activity level.
2. Causes Biochemical reactions
 Enzymes are proteins that aid the thousands
of biochemical reactions that take place
within and outside of your cells.
 The structure of enzymes allows them to combine
with other molecules inside the cell called
substrates, which catalyze reactions that are
essential to your metabolism.
 Enzymes also function outside the cell, such as
digestive enzymes like lactase and sucrase, which
help digest sugar.
 Some enzymes require other molecules such as
vitamins or minerals, for a reaction to take
place.
 Bodily functions that depend on enzymes
include:
 Digestion
 Energy production
 Blood clotting
 Muscle contraction
 Summary:
Enzymes are proteins that
allow key chemical reactions to
take place within your body.
3. Act as a Messenger
 Some proteins are hormones, which are
chemical messengers that aid communication
between your cells, tissues and organs.
 They’re made and secreted by endocrine tissues
or glands and then transported in your blood to
their target tissues or organs where they bind to
protein receptors on the cell surface.
 Hormones can be grouped into 3 main
categories:
 1. Protein and peptides: These are made form
chains of amino acids, ranging from a few to
several hundred.
 2. Steroids: These are made from the fat
cholesterol. The sex hormones, testosterone and
estrogen, are steroid-based.
 3. Amides: these are made from the
individual amino acids tryptophan or
tyrosine, which help make hormones
related to sleep and metabolism.
 Proteins and polypeptides make up most of your
body’s hormones.
 Some examples include:
1. Insulin: Signals the uptake of glucose or sugar into
the cell.
2. Glucagon: Signals the breakdown of stored glucose
in the liver.
3. hGH (human growth hormone): stimulates the
growth of various tissues, including the bones.
1.ADH (antidiuretic hormone): signals the kidneys
to reabsorb water.
2.ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone): stimulate
the release of cortisol, a key factor in metabolism.

SUMMARY: Amino acid chains of various

lengths form protein and peptides, which make
up several of your body’s hormones and transmit
information between your cells, tissues and
organs.
4. Provides structure
 Some proteins are fibrous and provide cells and
tissues with stiffness and rigidity.
 These proteins include keratin, collagen and elastin,
which help form the connective framework of certain
structures in your body.
 Keratin is a structural protein that is found in your
skin, hair and nails.
 Collagen is the most abundant protein in your
body and is the structural protein of bones, tendons,
ligaments and skin.
 Elastin is several hundred times more flexible
than collagen. Its high elasticity allows many
tissues in your body to return to their original
shape after stretching or contracting, such as your
uterus, lungs and arteries.
 SUMMARY:
A class of proteins known as
fibrous proteins provide various
parts of your body with
structure, strength and
elasticity.
 5. Maintains proper pH
 Proteins play a vital role in regulating the
concentrations of acids and bases in your blood
and other bodily fluids.
 The balance between acids and bases is
measured using the pH scale. It ranges from 0 to
14, with 0 being the most acidic, 7 neutral and
14 the most alkaline.
 Examples of the pH value of common
substances include:
pH 2: stomach acid
pH 4: tomato juice
pH 5: black coffee
pH 7.4: Human body
pH 10: milk of magnesia
pH 12: soapy water
 A variety of buffering systems allows
your bodily fluids to maintain normal
pH ranges.
 A constant pH is necessary, as even a
slight change in pH can be harmful or
potentially deadly.
 One way your body regulates pH is with
proteins. An example is hemoglobin, a
protein that makes up red blood cells.
Hemoglobin binds small amounts of acid,
helping to maintain the normal pH value of
your body.
 The other buffer systems in your body
include phosphate and bicarbonate.
 SUMMARY: Proteins acts as
buffer system, helping your
body maintain proper pH level
of the blood and other bodily
fluids.
6. Balances Fluids
 Proteins regulate body processes to maintain
fluid balance.
 Albumin and globulin are proteins in your
blood that help maintain your body’s fluid
balance by attracting and retaining water.
 If you don’t eat enough protein, your levels of albumin
and globulin eventually decreases. Consequently, these
proteins can no longer keep blood vessels, and the fluid
is forced into the spaces between your cells. As the fluid
continues to build up in the spaces between your cells,
swelling or edema occurs, particularly in the stomach
region. This is a form of severe protein malnutrition
called Kwashiorkor that develops when a person is
consuming enough calories but does not consume
enough protein.
 SUMMARY: Proteins in your
blood maintain the fluid
balance between your blood
and the surrounding tissues.
7. Bolsters Immune Health
 Proteins help form immunoglobulins, or
antibodies, to fight infection.
 Antibodies are proteins in your blood that help protect
your body from harmful invaders like bacteria and viruses.
When these foreign invaders enter your cells, your body
produces antibodies that tag them for elimination. Without
these antibodies, bacteria and viruses would be free to
multiply and overwhelm your body with the disease they
cause. Once your body has produced antibodies against a
particular bacteria or virus, your cells never forget how to
make them. This allows the antibodies to respond quickly
the next time a particular disease agent invades your body.
 As a result, your body develops immunity against the
diseases to which it is exposed.
 SUMMARY: Proteins form
antibodies to protect your
body from foreign invaders,
such as disease-causing
bacteria and viruses.
8. Transports and Stores
Nutrients
 Transport proteins carry
substances throughout your
bloodstream – into cells, out of
cells or within cells.
 The substances transported by these proteins include
nutrients like vitamins or minerals, blood sugar,
cholesterol and oxygen.
 Hemoglobin – carries oxygen
 Glucose transporters (GLUT) – move glucose to the cells
 Lipoproteins – transport cholesterol and fats in your body
 Ferritin – stores iron
 Casein – principal protein in milk that helps babies grow.
9. Provides Energy
 Proteins can supply your body with
energy
 Protein contains 4 calories per gram ,
the same amount of energy that carbs
provide. Fats supply the most energy,
at 9 calories per gram.
 However, the last thing your body wants to use
for energy is protein since this valuable nutrient
is widely used throughout your body.
 Carbs and fats are much better suited for
providing energy, as your body maintains
reserves for use as fuel. Moreover, they’re
metabolized more efficiently compared to
protein.
 In fact, protein supplies your body with very little of
its energy needs under normal circumstances.
However, in state of fasting (18-48 hours of no food
intake), your body breaks down skeletal muscle so that
the amino acids can supply you with energy.
 Your body also uses amino acids from broken-down
skeletal muscle if carbohydrates storage is low. This
can occur after exhaustive exercise or if you don’t
consume enough calories in general.
 SUMMARY: Proteins can
serve as a valuable energy
source but only in situations of
fasting, exhaustive exercise or
inadequate calorie intake.
Lipids
 Functions:
 Source of energy: It provide more calories
compared to carbohydrates (9 calories per
gram).
 Carriers of vitamin A, D, E and K.
 Insulators
 Raw materials for hormones and main
constituents of the cell.
 Fatty Acid
 It is the smallest or simplest form of
lipid.
 Composed of a long hydrocarbon chain
(“tail”) and a terminal carboxyl group
(“head”)
Most fatty acids found in nature have an even
number of carbon atoms, which is usually from
14 to24. However, fats and oils differ in their
nature. Animal fats are usually solid at room
temperature and contain saturated fatty acids,
whereas vegetable oils are liquids at room
temperature and contain unsaturated fatty
acids.
Number of Carbons Common Names Structure
Saturated Fatty Acids
12 Lauric acid
14 Myristic acid
16 Palmitic acid

18 Stearic acid
20 Arachidic acid
22 Behenic acid

24 Lignoceric acid
Unsaturated Fatty Acid

16 Palmitoleic acid

18 Oleic acid (most

common)

18 Linoleic acid

18 Alpha-linoleic acid
Fatty acids are either:

 Saturated (containing all carbon-carbon

single bonds making it solid at room
temperature)
 Unsaturated ( containing one or more
double bonds or a triple bond in the
hydrocarbon chain making it liquid at room
temperature.)
Essential fatty acids

 Necessary for normal growth and life.

 Includes: Linoleic and Linolenic acid.
Lipids are classified into:

 Triglycerides
 Phospholipids
 Waxes
 Steroids
 1. Triglycerides

 It is the common feature of lipids in our diet such as

those in animal fats (e.g., butter, lard) and vegetable
oils (e.g., canola oil, sunflower oil, coconut oil).
 They maybe solid or liquid at room temperature.
The solid forms are called fats and the liquid forms
are called oils.
2. Phospholipids

 Phospholipids are main constituent of

the cell membrane. It is composed of
fatty acids, glycerol, and a phosphate
group. Example of these are lecithin in
egg yolk and liver, and cephalin in brain
tissue.
Other examples of waxes
includes:

 Carnuba wax, earwax, honeycomb

and polishers.
 4. Steroids
 Composed of 3 fused six-membered and 1 five-
membered ring.
 These are waxy, fatlike group of molecules.
 Primarily responsible for the formation of sex
hormones and bile, which helps in digestion by
breaking down fats into fatty acids.
Cholesterol
 It is found in many foods, in the blood stream, and
in all the body’s cells.
 It is endogenous.
 Essential to the formation and maintenance of cell
membranes; the formation of sex hormones, the
production of bile salts and synthesis of vitamin D
in the skin when exposed to sunlight.
 Cholesterol Content of Foods Commonly Consumed
(per 100 g)
FOOD CHOLESTEROL FOOD CHOLESTEROL
(mg) (mg)
Fruits and vegetables 0 Clam 20.9

Egg white 0 Tilapia 21.1

Sea cucumber 0 Shark 32.5
Lapu-lapu 4.4 Goto 25.4
Fresh cow’s milk 6.5 Snail 26.7
Dilis 19.0 Mullet 33.3
Human milk 19.7 Cheese 33.8
FOOD CHOLESTER FOOD CHOLESTER
OL (mg) OL(mg)
Chicken 62.9 All fat milk 85.0
Cow 64.5 Prawn 89.0
Pork 68.8 Chinese ham 100.0
Crab meat 72.5 Pig tongue 100.6
Galunggong 73.6 Pig heart 101.3
Bagoong 75.8 Pigeon 111.0
Mackerel 79.4 Pig intestine 122.6
Nucleic Acids:

The Molecules of Life